Month: November 2019

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Exam Questions Harvard

Harvard. Final exam for location of economic activity. Usher, 1943

 

 The course announcement, enrollment figures, course description, and reading assignments for Abbott P. Usher’s Harvard half-course (first term, 1942-43), “The Location of Economic Activity. General Principles and Current Problems,” have been transcribed and posted earlier. 

This post provides a transcription of the final examination for the course.

________________

1942-43
HARVARD UNIVERSITY

ECONOMICS 65a1
[Final examination]

I
(About one hour)

  1. Write an essay on a topic based upon the work of the reading period, or on one of the following topics: the basing point system, the effect of parallelism in a railway network upon the rate structure.

II
Answer THREE questions.

  1. Under what circumstances may we describe a region as “maturely” settled? Within what limits may we expect to find variations in the density of population in maturely settled areas?
  2. Discuss the relative significance of surplus food, coal, and water power as in the localization of economic activity in the modern world.
  3. Answer a, or b.
    1. Within what limits can we defend the charging of higher gross rates, per ton mile or per passenger mile, for shorter than for longer distances?
    2. Discuss: “It is probably safe to say that the centralization of manufacturing industry has reached its limit. A reaction toward decentralization began when manufacturers located their mills in the suburbs of large cities in order to escape high city rents….”
      Weber, Growth of Cities, 1899.
  4. Describe the pattern of production in the steel industry of the United States, and explain the outstanding features of the pattern of localization.
  5. Describe the processes of extracting and refining copper, and discuss the influence of these procedures upon the location of the various types of enterprises in the copper industry.

 

Source: Harvard University Archives. Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Harvard University: Papers Printed for Mid-Year Examinations [in] History, Theology,…, Economics, …, Military Science, Naval Science. January, 1943. [Mid-Year Exams—Social Sciences, 1943. HUC 7000.55]

Image Source: Harvard Class Album, 1947.

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Johns Hopkins Pennsylvania Suggested Reading

Johns Hopkins/Wharton. Linked Reading List for History and Theory of Money. Sherwood, 1891-92

 

 

Sidney Sherwood, 1860-1901 received his Ph.D. from Johns Hopkins University in 1891 where he was to become the successor of Richard T. Ely as head of the department of Political Economy.

This post includes two memorials that provide a bit of biographical background followed by a rich, linked course of readings that were published in an appendix to the University Extension lecture material for Sherwood’s course, The History and Theory of Money, during the year he taught at the Wharton School of Finance and Economy (1891-92). 

The next post will provide the course outline with the specific reading assignments for Sherwood’s twelve lectures.

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SIDNEY SHERWOOD.

Sidney Sherwood, Associate Professor of Economics in the Johns Hopkins University, died after a brief illness at Ballston, New York, August 5,1901. While spending a part of his vacation on a farm he accidentally cut his right hand. Blood poisoning ensued which led to fatal results in spite of the best medical aid. He was buried at Cornwall-on-the-Hudson, where for many years he maintained a summer home.

Dr. Sherwood was born at Ballston, May 28, 1860. He graduated from Princeton College in 1879, then entered Columbia University, where he studied law. He afterwards practiced that profession in New York City, but having become interested in economic questions he entered the Johns Hopkins University in 1888 in order to pursue advanced studies under Professors Ely and Adams. He received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in 1891 and was called at once to the University of Pennsylvania as Instructor in Economics. In 1892, Dr. Sherwood returned to Baltimore, having been appointed Associate in Economics; in 1895, he was made Associate Professor.

At a meeting of the Board of University Studies a committee was appointed to draft appropriate resolutions. Their report is as follows:

“The Board of University Studies is compelled with sorrow to record the death of Associate Professor Sidney Sherwood, who as student and teacher, was connected with this University for more than twelve years.

“During all this period Dr. Sherwood grew steadily in the esteem and affection of his colleagues. Beneath a modest demeanor he revealed most amiable as well as most substantial qualities. As a writer he gave evidence of solid learning and sound judgment. As a teacher and counsellor of students in this University his services were of great value and his absence will be deeply felt.

“The members of the Board desire to extend to Mrs. Sherwood and her family their heartfelt sympathy in this bereavement.”

Source: Johns Hopkins University. University Circulars. (Vol. XXI. No. 154, December 1901) p. 9.

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SIDNEY SHERWOOD: A MUCH LOVED PROFESSOR OF OTHER DAYS
BY BERNARD C. STEINER, PH.D. 1891

ABOUT a month after the opening of the University year of 1888, there came into the Historical Seminary, a quiet, rather reserved man, somewhat older and considerably more experienced than the rest of the graduate students. He chose for his subjects, history, political economy, and English, and wrote, as his dissertation, a “History of the University of the State of New York.” In 1891, he took the degree of Ph.D. — such is the skeleton of the University life of Sidney Sherwood. To those who were his fellow-students, the mention of his name recalls a personality of gentle force, an accurate and careful scholarship, a faithful friend, who could be relied upon in any emergency. In the large third story room, known as the Bluntschli Library, the historical students came into such close contact that they knew each other thoroughly and all came to esteem Sherwood highly. In a little quiz class of a few men who took their degree together, he showed his thoughtful studiousness, even more than in the larger seminary, and also displayed his sane and ripe judgment.

He was born on May 28, 1860, at Ballston Spa, Saratoga County, N. Y., his parents being Thomas Burr and Mary Frances (Beattie) Sherwood. He prepared for College at Mr. Buckley’s private school in his native town, having the reputation of being the brightest boy that the master had ever taught. In the fall of 1875, he entered the College of New Jersey, as Princeton University was then called.

After graduating from Princeton in the well-known class of ’79, with Woodrow Wilson and other prominent men, to use his own words, written to his class secretary in 1894, he “tackled life, in the capacity of professor of Latin, Greek, mathematics, French, and German in the Newton Collegiate Institute of Newton. N. J. I likewise officiated as coach in football. The idea of a college course, as giving general culture, was certainly realized in the Princeton curriculum of that period, otherwise I never should have been fitted for that broad chair.” After a year of teaching, he went to Europe and spent two years, to quote him again, “in Great Britain and Western Europe, trying to get more general culture.” When he returned to the United States, he served a few months as a reporter upon the New York Tribune, “reading law on the sly.” Then the death of his father, in February, 1883, made it necessary for him to spend a year on the paternal farm in Saratoga County, during which time he read law at Ballston Spa. In the autumn of 1884, he entered the Columbia Law School; but, after a year of study there, he left the school and entered the office of Abner C. Thomas, LL.D., with whom he formed a partnership, when admitted to the bar in February, 1886 and for whom he did much of the hard research work connected with the preparation of the well-known and useful work known as Thomas on Mortgages. He continued this connection, until he gave up the practice of law and came to Baltimore. This change of purpose came through the mayoralty campaign, in which Henry George was one of the candidates, in which campaign Sherwood was much interested. He found that it “opened up a new field of study and work — the field of social philosophy and social progress. An academic career, the study and teaching of the forces and mechanism of human progress became henceforth my chief aim.” He said “I belong to the party of progress” and his mind in an unusual manner faced the future, while preserving conservative modes of thinking.

Few men ever held opinions more firmly, or with less bigotry than Sherwood, nor did he ever confuse the essential principles, which must be held firmly, with the unessential ones, which may be changed. So he was a moderate Republican and a Presbyterian, but he was a thoroughly convinced patriot and Christian.

Shortly after leaving the University, on September 3, 1891, he married Miss Mary A. Beattie of Cornwall, N. Y.

In a sketch such as this, the delightful home life of Sherwood’s family may not be more than mentioned and yet all who knew him know also that no sketch of him should be written without some such mention. The loving devotion of that true woman, who linked her fortunes with his and the ingenuous charm of the children made a fine background to the picture, and in that home, he found refreshment and strength. Four daughters and a son came into the family — the last too late, however, to remember his father, for he was born only a few months before the end.

In the autumn of 1891 he began teaching in the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania, as instructor in finance. While in this position, he delivered a course of lectures on the “History and Theory of Money,” which was published in 1893. In 1892, Professor Richard T. Ely was called from the Johns Hopkins to the University of Wisconsin and Sherwood became his successor in Baltimore. He carried on the work of the economic department until his death, growing yearly in power and influence, giving faithful and patient attention to each of his students, and showing equal faithfulness in the directorship of such institutions in Baltimore as he found time to enter. His thought ripened slowly and his great work on finance was ever in preparation. One summer towards the close of his life, he forewent the pleasure of staying with his family and crossed the Atlantic Ocean to Germany to collect material there, but the book remained unwritten to the end. His History of the University of the State of New York published in 1893, widened to an History of Higher Education in New York State, a bulky volume, printed by the United States Bureau of Education in 1900 as part of a series, in the preparation of which Professor Adams had enlisted the services of a number of Hopkins men.

With fearful suddenness came the interruption of the useful work he was doing. Hale and strong, in the mellow maturity of his powers, he went into the garden of his summer home one day to prune some bushes. A scratch must have conveyed some vegetable poison into his veins, blood poisoning followed, and, after a very few days’ illness, he died “during a beautiful golden sunset” on August 5, 1901. The poignancy of the grief at the loss of a friend mingled in the minds of those who knew him, with the keen regret that the University was deprived of a scholar whose teaching by his example, what should be the attitude of a professor, was as important as the principles of political economy which he laid down in his lectures. The influence of such a man is pervasive and permanent and one of the privileges which lengthening years bring to the University is that it can look back upon the unselfish and complete service of such men as Sidney Sherwood.

Source: The Johns Hopkins Alumni Magazine. Vol. 5, No. 1 (November, 1916) pp. 32-35.

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READINGS FOR THE HISTORY AND THEORY OF MONEY

USEFUL BOOKS OF REFERENCE.

The literature of Money is so vast that a wise selection of a few books is almost impossible. The list here given is meant to contain books which are easily accessible, and which will tempt to further study after the lectures are finished.

Two books mentioned in the list — viz., Report of the International Monetary Conference of 1878 and W. S. Jevons’s Investigations in Currency and Finance — contain extensive and valuable bibliographies of money which will be of great service in making a thorough study of the subject.

Reference to works in foreign languages has been avoided. The French literature on this subject is very rich; the Italian and German also. The student reading any of these languages can easily find trace of the books he needs from references in the books here mentioned.

 

THE GENERAL SUBJECT OF MONEY.

Andrews, E. B., Institutes of Economics.

Bastable, C. F., “Money.” Encyclopaedia Britannica [9th ed.]

Colwell, Stephen, Ways and Means of Payment.

Ely, R. T., Introduction to Political Economy.

Jevons, W. Stanley, Money and the Mechanism of Exchange. [Text-book of the course, which should be in the hands of every student.]

Mill, J. S., Principles of Political Economy. [Ashley edition of 7th ed., 1909]

Nicholson, J. S., Money and Monetary Problems.

Patterson, R. H., The Science of Finance.

Poor, H. V., Money: its Laws and History.

Ricardo, David, Works.

Smith, Adam, Wealth of Nations. [Cannan ed. (1904)]

Walker, Francis A., Money in its Relations to Trade and Industry. [Text-book of the course, which should be in the hands of every student.]

_______, Political Economy (larger edition).

_______, Money.

Walker, J. H., Money, Trade, and Banking.

Willson, H. B., Currency.

 

SPECIAL MONETARY TOPICS.

Ashley, W. J., English Economic History. [2nd ed. Volume I; Volume II]

Atkinson, Edward, Report on Bimetallism in Europe. (Sen. Exec. Doc, No. 34, 50th Congress.)

Bagehot, Walter, Lombard Street: A Description of the Money-Market.

Böhm-Bawerk, Capital and Interest.

Bolles, Financial History of the United States. [1774-1789; 1789-1850; 1861-1885]

Carey, H. C, Pamphlets on the Currency. See Works, Vol. XXXI. [Perhaps “The Currency Question” in Miscellaneous Works of Henry C. Carey (1872?)]

Dunbar, C. F., Theory and History of Banking.

Evans, History of the United States Mint and Coinage.

Giffen, Robert, Essays in Finance. [1880; Second series, 3rd ed (1890)]

Gilbart, J. W., History, Principles, and Practice of Banking. [1904 ed.: Volume I; Volume II]

Goschen, Theory of the Foreign Exchanges.

Horton, S. Dana, Gold and Silver. [sic.  Silver and Gold and their Relation to the Problem of Resumption (1877)]

_______, The Silver Pound.

_______, [Appendix: Historical Material for and contributions to the Study of Monetary Policy] Report of International Monetary Conference of 1878. (Sen. Exec. Doc, No. 58, 45th Congress.)

Ingram, J. K., History of Political Economy.

Jacob, William, Historical Inquiry into the Production and Consumption of the Precious Metals. [Volume I; Volume II]

James, E. J., “Banks of Issue.” Lalor’s Cyclopaedia.

Jevons, W. S., Investigations in Currency and Finance.

Knox, John Jay, United States Notes.

_______, “Banking in the United States.” Lalor’s Cyclopaedia.

Laughlin, J. L., History of Bimetallism in the United States.

Laws of the United States relating to Loans and the Currency, Coinage and Banking. (Compilation published by the Government in 1886.)

Leslie, T. E. C, Essays in Political and Moral Philosophy.

Linderman, H. R., Money and Legal Tender in the United States.

Liverpool, Lord, A Treatise on the Coins of the Realm.

Macaulay, T. B., History of England. [Volume I; Volume II; Volume III; Volume IV; Volume V; Volume VI; Volume VII;Volume VIII; Volume IX; Volume X] [Popular edition (1889) in two volumes: Volume I; Volume II]

Patterson, R. H., The New Golden Age. [Volume I; Volume II]

Rogers, J. E. T., The First Nine Years of the Bank of England.

Sherman, John, Speeches and Reports on Finance and Taxation.

Sumner, W. G., History of American Currency.

Upton, J. K., Money in Politics.

Wells, David A., Recent Economic Changes.

 

MISCELLANEOUS.

Annual Finance Reports of the United States, containing reports of

Comptroller of the Currency, Director of the Mint, etc.

Congressional Record.

House and Senate Documents.

Report of the International Monetary Conference of 1878.

Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, London.

American Bankers’ Magazine.

Rhodes’s Journal of Banking.

Reports of the Annual Meetings of the American Bankers’ Association.

Bradstreet’s and other periodicals devoted to economic, financial,

commercial, and monetary subjects.

Encyclopaedia Britannica.

Lalor’s Cyclopaedia of Political Science, Political Economy, and United States History. [Volume I (Abdication-Duty); Volume II (East India Company-Nullification); Volume III (Oath-Zollverein)]

 

OUTLINE OF A COURSE OF READING.

Two books are essential, and should be carefully studied:

  1. Jevons’s Money and the Mechanism of Exchange.
  2. Walker, F. A., Money in its Relations to Trade and Industry.

For the purpose of this course of lectures, no substitutes for these books could be suggested which would be of equal worth. If students wish to purchase a few more books, the following are recommended: Knox, United States Notes; Dunbar, Theory and History of Banking; Andrews, Institutes of Economics; Bagehot, Lombard Street: A Description of the Money-Market; Sumner, History of American Currency; Laws of United States relating to Loans, etc., 1886.

 

SHORT COURSE OF READING.

Jevons and Walker should be followed by the reading suggested at the beginning of each lecture. The reader will find frequent reference in these books to other books, and can follow the line of his special interest still further if he wishes. Some good text-book in Political Economy should be always at hand for the close study of the economic principles involved. Walker and Andrews are especially good on money.

 

LONGER COURSE OF READING.

After Jevons and Walker, Professor Bastable’s article on “Money,” in the Encyclopaedia Britannica (9th ed.), may be read as giving an admirable general review of the subject.

The historical evolution of money and money substitutes should be grasped before going deeply into the theory and the practical aspects of the subject.

Enough is given in Jevons, Walker, and Bastable on the subject of primitive money. Books of travel, writings of anthropologists, accounts of early institutions, history of ancient or barbarous peoples, old laws, early records of state, etc., furnish innumerable instances of all types of early money. The student should form the habit of making all his general reading aid his systematic special study.

On the subject of coins and coinage, read articles “Mint” and “Numismatics,” in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, Liverpool’s Coins of the Realm, pp. 25-56, Walker’s Money, Chapters IX., X., XL, and Linderman’s Money and Legal Tender. Linderman was formerly Director of the Mint, and has given a very clear and interesting account of the history of United States coinage and some of the processes of coinage. Consult the Laws of the United States relating to Loans and the Currency, Coinage and Banking (1886). The coinage laws from 1792 to 1886 are there given, pp. 211-288. Consult, also, Evans, United States Mint and Coinage. Visit the Mint, and learn as much as possible of the technical processes of coinage, and examine the various collections of United States and foreign coins.

The subject of the production of the precious metals is very important. Jacob’s book is the great authority, and will repay reading through, although rather long. Walker’s Money (the large work), in Chapters V.-VIII., treats historically of this subject, and follows Jacob quite closely. An excellent plan would be to read these chapters in Walker, referring constantly to Jacob, and reading such parts as are of special interest. Having thus got the general facts clearly in mind, read Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations, Book I., Chapter XI., ” Digression on the Variations in the Value of Silver,” for the sake of getting an idea of this old master. The most valuable discussions of the problems involved by great discoveries of gold and silver have been written since 1850. Read in Laughlin’s Bimetallism, Chapter V., on the gold discoveries; VIII., on production of gold since 1850; and XII., on cause of fall in value of silver. Follow this with the essay in Nicholson’s Money on the “Effects of Great Discoveries of the Precious Metals,” and Chapter VII. in the same book, on the international influences that fix general prices. The second article in Jevons’s Investigations, etc. (on the fall in the value of gold), may then be read, followed by “Changes in General Prices and in the Purchasing Power of Gold,” being Part VII. of Appendix D in Atkinson’s Report on Bimetallism. Various other parts of this Report will be found helpful. Patterson’s New Golden Age may be consulted with much profit. Wells’s Recent Economic Changes is excellent, as pointing out other factors than the quantity of money which may be operative in change of prices.

Passing on to credit substitutes for money, we take up first the “Organization of Credit” in the Banking System. Begin with Adam Smith’s account of the Bank of Amsterdam, Wealth of Nations, Book IV., Chapter III., Part I. Then read the chapters of Gilbart’s Banking, indicated below. Mr. Gilbart was a practical banker for half a century, from his twentieth year till his death in 1863. After twenty years’ experience in a London and in an Irish bank, and after publishing various writings on the subject of banking, he was made General Manager of the London and Westminster Bank, — the first of the Joint-Stock Banks in England, opened in 1834. It was largely through his efforts that the Joint-Stock Banks survived the opposition encountered on every side, and became established as a part of the English banking system. His book may be relied on for accuracy, and is clear in statement. Read §§ I. and II. for the early history of banks in England and elsewhere; §§ III.- VI. for an account of the Bank of England and the other English banks; § XXVIII. for a discussion of the relation of the Bank of England to the currency since the Act of 1844; § XXXV. for a sketch of the Clearing-House; and §§ XXXVI. and XXXVII. for a history of the crises of 1857, 1866, 1875, and 1878. Macaulay, in History of England, Chapter XX., tells in his graphic way the story of the founding of the Bank of England. It would be well to read also his third chapter on the state of England in 1685, and his account of the controversy over the Recoinage Act of 1696 (Chapter XXI.). Rogers’s First Nine Years of the Bank of England is very suggestive, admirably bringing out the political side of the movement for the Bank. Then read Professor Sumner’s discussion of the “Bank Restriction” in his History of American Currency, which also con tains the “Bullion Report.” Ricardo’s Works might well follow. Read Chapter XXVII. in his Principles of Political Economy, on “Currency and Banks,” and also one or two of his classical essays on currency questions. Next take up Bagehot’s Lombard Street: a Description of the Money-Market, a book written with all the nervous vigor and keen insight of this versatile author. While the book treats mainly English conditions, a clever shifting of recitals to the American money-market will throw much light on the intricate subject.

This reading will have taken the student over the Bank Charter Act of 1844 and its effects. Then read the article in Lalor on “Banks of Issue,” by Professor E. J. James, to get a general view of the subject and a clear idea of the scientific questions involved.

Turning now to American Currency and Banking, the article in Lalor, by John Jay Knox, on “Banking in the United States,” will be found the best introduction to the subject. He has described the National Bank system in his report as Comptroller of the Currency (Finance Report, 1875). Then read Sumner’s History of the American Currency. The subject of paper money is best approached through the history of American Government issues, both colonial and national. Follow Sumner with Knox’s United States Notes, Upton’s Money in Politics, and Sherman’s Speeches on the Currency. The Government compilation of Laws relating to Loans and the Currency, Coinage and Banking, published 1886, and before mentioned, should be constantly at hand for reference. Study the Legal-Tender Act and Legal-Tender Cases, the National Bank system, and the present coinage laws of the United States, so as to understand clearly our present currency. Bolles’s Financial History of the United States is especially useful. Colwell’s Ways and Means of Payment is an able, systematic treatise on money and credit, and might well be read at this point.

This reading will bring into view the principles underlying the whole monetary system as well as the practical questions at issue. For clear exposition and able discussion of these principles, especially in regard to the part played by credit as organized in the banking system, turn to J. H. Walker’s Money, Trade, and Banking, C. F. Dunbar’s Theory and History of Banking, and R. H. Patterson’s Science of Finance. This latter book discusses also the question of the relation of the state to the currency.

The problem of the monetary standard remains, — “The Battle of the Standards.”

A great classic is A Treatise on the Coins of the Realm, by Lord Liverpool, published at Oxford in 1805. The writer had held many high offices, — Secretary of the Treasury, Lord of the Treasury, President of the Board of Trade, among others. In 1774 he had successfully urged the recoinage of the gold coins. England had always had a silver standard; gold, however, being a legal tender at a certain fixed ratio to silver. The silver had become very worn. Coin was scarce, the bank having stopped specie payments in 1797. Lord Liverpool urged the change from a silver to a gold standard, the making of gold the sole, full legal tender, giving only a small legal- tender limit to silver as a subsidiary coin. This policy was substantially carried out by the Recoinage Law of 1816, which as amended in 1870 is the English law to-day, and Englishmen have now forgotten that they ever had a silver standard. S. Dana Horton says of this Treatise, it “became the great charter of Monetary Right for the Nineteenth Century.” It contains much valuable historical information on English coinage, as well as formal discussions of the nature and functions of money and the principles applying to a monetary system. Its bearing upon the bimetallic controversy is obvious. Then read Ricardo’s essay, “Proposals for an Economic and Secure Currency.” The book to be next read is Horton’s The Silver Pound and England’s Monetary Policy since the Restoration, or Horton’s Gold and Silver [sic, “Silver and Gold” is the correct title]. Laughlin’s Bimetallism in the United States should follow. The Report of the International Monetary Conference of 1878 is very valuable, containing an appendix filled with historical material bearing on this question, a brief account of the Latin Monetary Union, and an extensive bibliography mentioned above. Atkinson’s Report on Bimetallism in Europe will also be found useful. Nicholson has several good essays in favor of Bimetallism in his Money and Monetary Problems. Giffen writes on the other side. Read also Jevons’s essays on the subject in his Investigations, etc., and the chapter on “Bimetallism” in Walker’s Political Economy. Henry C. Carey’s Pamphlet on Financial Crises, and Willson’s Currency, pp. 250-284, would be a good introduction to the subject of panics. Follow with Jevons’s essays on Crises, in his Investigations, etc., and with Wells’s Recent Economic Changes.

A work of the highest importance is Lalor’s Cyclopaedia of Political Science. It should be diligently referred to throughout this entire course of reading. The unique value of this book is that it contains the whole political and eco nomic history of the United States in compact form, and with abundant reference to special authorities, while at the same time treating particular questions not merely in the light of American experience, but with a broad outlook upon European conditions, and in a manner truly scientific.

Finally, when the above outline of reading is exhausted, take up Andrews’s Institutes of Economics and study Part II., Exchange; Part III., Money and Credit; Part IV., Chapter III., Interest; Part VI., Chapters I.- III., United States Currency. It is compact with suggestive thought and an excellent stimulus to independent thinking on the part of the reader.

 

Source: From Sidney Sherwood, The History and Theory of Money, Appendix “Syllabus of the Preceding Course of Twelve Lectures on the History and Theory of Money” (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1896) pp. 359-365.

Image Source: Photograph of Sidney Sherwood by photographer Blessing. Johns Hopkins University. Sheridan Libraries.

Categories
Exam Questions Harvard Undergraduate

Harvard. Division Exams for the economics A.B., January 1917

 

The philosophy behind the use of division examinations for undergraduate history, government, and economics majors at Harvard was documented in an earlier post providing excerpts from relevant passages in annual reports of the President of Harvard College. This post adds to the growing stock of division exams from Harvard collected here at Economics in the Rear-view Mirror. Links to other exams are provided in the post along with the questions for four exams from the division examinations given in January 1917.

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Background

A significant event of the year [1915-16] was the inauguration by the Division of History, Government, and Economics of its new examination of candidates for the Bachelor’s degree who have concentrated in the Division. This examination was devised “not in order to place an additional burden upon candidates for the A.B., but for the purpose of securing better correlation of the student’s work, encouraging better methods of study, and furnishing a more adequate test of real power and attainment.” In their preparation students have from the beginning of the Sophomore year special tutorial instruction. The examination embraces three tests: first, a general paper, with a large number of alternative questions, treating comprehensively the subjects of the Division; second, a special paper, covering a chosen specific field; and lastly, a supplementary oral examination which may relate to either the general or the special paper, but ordinarily bears upon the specific field. The results of the first examination, taken by a comparatively small group of men graduating in three years, are in no way conclusive. The members of the examining committee, however, think them distinctly encouraging. Twenty-four candidates appeared, of whom twenty-two passed and two failed. Their selection of questions from the general paper indicated breadth of preparation and their bearing at the oral examination showed more than a little clearness and independence of thought.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College, 1915-16, pp.75-76.

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April 1927 Division Examinations Not Included in Cole’s Volume of Exams

Handwritten note added to the Arthur H. Cole volume of collected division examinations, 1916-1927:

“This volume contains the January exams for 1916-17. The April 1917 exams are shelved separately”.

Source: Harvard University Archives. Divisional and general examinations, 1915-1975 (HUC 7000.18). Box 6, Bound Volume (stamped “Private Library Arthur H. Cole”) “Divisional Examinations 1916-1927”.

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Other Harvard division exams transcribed and posted:

Division Examinations for the Degree of A.B.
Division of History, Government and Economics.

April/May 1916

History of Economic Thought, Public Finance, Labor 1931

Economic Theory 1939
Money and Government Finance 1939
Economic History (since 1750) 1939
Labor and Social Reform 1939

__________________

DIVISION OF HISTORY, GOVERNMENT AND ECONOMICS
FOR THE DEGREE OF A.B. DIVISION EXAMINATIONS
1916-17

DIVISION OF HISTORY, GOVERNMENT AND ECONOMICS
DIVISION GENERAL EXAMINATION
[January 6, 1917]

Part I

The treatment of one of the following questions will be regarded as equivalent to one-half of the examination and should therefore occupy one and one-half hours. Write on one question only.

  1. How does the federal form of government affect the life of a nation?
  2. Discuss the arguments for and against universal manhood suffrage.
  3. What influences have been exerted by the Catholic Church on political development since 1500?
  4. Sketch the life and work of two or three of the following: (a) Calvin, (b) Cavour, (c) Hildebrand, (d) Jefferson, (e) Kant, (f) Marx, (g) J. S. Mill, (h) Sir Thomas More, (i) Theodosius.
  5. What were the political and economic effects before 1750 of the discovery of America?
  6. How has the physiography of the states of Europe influenced (a) their economic development? (b) their political organization, and (c) their present problems?
  7. What has been the influence of France in the Western hemisphere?
  8. Discuss the merits and defects of lawyers as statesmen?
  9. Explain the reasons for the differences in British foreign and colonial policy in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
  10. What have been the consequences of the guarantee of freedom of contract?
  11. Do periods of internal and external national greatness tend to coincide?
  12. Discuss sectionalism in the United States since the Civil War.

 

Part II

Three questions only from the following groups, A, B, and C, are to be answered, of which not more than two may be from one group.

A

  1. What were the chief features of the economic life of New England prior to the nineteenth century?
  2. Trace and explain the development of American agriculture since 1860.
  3. What have been the causes and results of the growth of cities?
  4. State the case for and against a federal income tax in the United States.
  5. In what ways and by what means does war affect government regulation of industry?
  6. Indicate points at which British economic policy has influenced German policy.

B

  1. Compare the characters and careers of Philip II of Spain, Louis XIV of France, and William II of Germany.
  2. How does the history of Holland and of Portugal illustrate the principle of balance of power?
  3. Should the French Revolution be regarded as the beginning or as the end of a period?
  4. “…With the governments who have declared their independence and maintained it, and whose independence we have, on great consideration and on just principles acknowledged, we could not view any interposition for the purpose of oppressing them, or controlling in any other manner their destiny, by any European power, in any other light than as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition toward the United States.”
    From what document is this quotation taken? Give a brief account of the subsequent applications of this principle.
  5. In how far was the navy responsible for the victory of the North in the Civil War?
  6. Give an account of the political and economic relations of Germany and the United States, since the Declaration of American Independence.

C

  1. Compare the powers exercised by the President of the United States in 1800, in 1850, and in 1916.
  2. Why should Europe dominate Africa?
  3. What are the arguments for and against centralization and decentralization of political power?
  4. Should members of cabinets sit and vote in national legislative bodies?
  5. To what causes has the expansion of the United States since 1800 been due?
  6. Why has the status of Turkey been a matter of importance in international affairs?

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

DIVISION SPECIAL EXAMINATION
ECONOMIC THEORY
[January 10, 1917]

Answer six questions.

A

Take from this group at least two and not more than four.

  1. “The difference between producer’s and consumer’s goods is at bottom only a difference of degree.” Explain. What is the essential difference between these two classes of goods?
  2. Define and analyze: (a) consumer’s surplus; (b) producer’s surplus. Under what conditions of cost does producer’s surplus arise? How is monopoly profit to be distinguished from producer’s surplus? Illustrate throughout by diagram.
  3. What is meant by “overinvestment”? “overaccumulation”? How does over-investment in particular industries “bring its own remedy”? How does a tendency toward overaccumulation?
  4. “The exchanges between different countries are analogous to the exchanges between non-competing groups within a country.” Explain.
  5. Discuss the more important difficulties in the way of socialism.
  6. What methods of investigation may be employed in economic theory? Give an illustration of the use of one of these methods.

B

Take from this group at least one and not more than two.

  1. Sketch and criticize the attitude of the English and American courts during the nineteenth century toward collective bargaining by labor.
  2. Trace the development of interest theories.
  3. To what extent were changes in the tariff policy of the United States during the nineteenth century based upon changes in the prevailing opinion concerning free trade and protection?

C

Take from this group at least one and not more than two.

  1. Contrast the concepts of justice in taxation and justice in the distribution of wealth.
  2. What is the case for and against the Single Tax?
  3. To what extent and by what means can trade-unions influence (a) the wages paid in a given occupation? (b) the general level of wages?
  4. What has been the importance of the “American frontier” in the distribution of wealth in the United States?

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

DIVISION SPECIAL EXAMINATION
MONEY AND BANKING
[January 10, 1917]

Answer six questions.

A

Take from this group at least one and not more than two.

  1. Analyze the relation of the value of gold to its cost of production. In what measure, if at all, is the indicated relation peculiar to gold?
  2. Discuss index numbers of prices with reference to (a) the purposes they may serve; (b) the various methods of construction; (c) the best index numbers for wholesale prices in the United States.
  3. Below is a combined statement of the 12 Federal Reserve Banks at a recent date.
    Explain the several items of the statement, and comment upon the more significant conditions disclosed.

RESOURCES

 LIABILITIES

(all items in thousands of dollars)
Gold coin and certificates in vaults

$283,730

 Capital paid in

$55,711
Gold settlement fund

$174,801

 Government deposits

$26,319
Gold redemption fund

$1,404

 Member bank deposits

$637,072
Legal tender notes, silver, etc.

$17,974

 Federal Reserve notes—net

$14,296
5 per cent redemption fund

$470

 Federal Reserve bank notes

$1,028
Bills discounted for members

$20, 501

 Other liabilities

$634
Bills bought

$102,092
United States bonds

$39,427
One-year Treasury notes

$11,167
Municipal warrants

$22,166
Federal Reserve notes—net

$15,414
Due from other Federal Reserve Banks—net

$43,263
Other resources

$2,651

$735,060

$735,060

B

Take from this group at least one and not more than two.

  1. What were some of the forms of primitive money? What functions were performed by each form?
  2. Describe the economic cycle culminating in the crisis of 1837.
  3. Trace and explain the inflationist movement in the United States from 1865 to 1900.
  4. What connections have existed since 1830 between the financial administration of the Federal Government and banks in the United States?

C

Take from this group at least two and not more than four.

  1. Would universal bimetallism conduce to a stable market ratio between gold and silver? to a stable price level? What have been the chief obstacles to universal bimetallism? Are these obstacles increasing or decreasing?
  2. When prices are rising how are the following affected: (a) farmers; (b) factor operatives; (c) manufacturers; (d) stockholders; (e) owners of gold mines?
  3. Give a detailed account of silver since 1890.
  4. Wherein is the Federal Reserve System like the banking system recommended by the National Monetary Commission? Wherein is it different? Discuss the differences.
  5. Trace and explain the course of foreign exchange rates since the beginning of the European War.
  6. What is meant by “agricultural credit”? Describe briefly and criticize the existing facilities for agricultural credit in the United States.

    *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

DIVISION SPECIAL EXAMINATION
CORPORATE ORGANIZATION, INCLUDING RAILROADS
[January 10, 1917]

Answer six questions.

A

Take from this group at least one and not more than two.

  1. Define “monopoly.” In what ways, if at all, is monopoly price affected by (a) cost of production per unit? (b) potential competition? (c) an elastic demand for the product? (d) the existence of satisfactory substitutes for the product?
  2. What official statistics throw light upon industrial organization in the United States? Criticise the available statistics of this subject.
  3. Describe the general features of the uniform accounting system now prescribed for railroads by the Interstate Commerce Commission. Why was the Commission given power to prescribe and supervise such a uniform accounting system?
  4. Enumerate the principal sources of railway statistics at the present time, and show the content, importance, and deficiencies (if any) of each.

B

Take from this group at least one and not more than two.

  1. Trace any connections between the corporate form of organization and the later stages of the Industrial Revolution.
  2. Sketch the history of the Sherman Anti-Trust Law and its enforcement.
  3. Give a brief account of the Granger movement.
  4. “Railways have been the most important agents in increasing the disparities of wealth in modern times.” Explain.

C

Take from this group at least two and not more than four.

  1. If a corporation regularly earns 5 per cent on all its outstanding securities, can it be said to be overcapitalized? What constitutes overcapitalization? How, if at all, should the law attempt to deal with overcapitalization?
  2. Analyze the present policy of the Federal Government in its regulation of industrial combinations in the United States.
  3. What connections exist between banks and industrial combinations in the United States? Contrast the situation here with that in France.
  4. In railroading in the United States, what is the significance of the following: (a) large plant; (b) joint cost; (c) physical valuation; (d) competition of water routes; (e) division of powers between state and Federal governments?
  5. Discuss the forms and significance of discriminations in railway rate-making. Which of the discriminations, if any, tend to persist under government ownership?
  6. What provisions should be made for the settlement of wage disputes on interstate railroads in the United States?

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

DIVISION SPECIAL EXAMINATIONS
[not transcribed for this post]

MODERN HISTORY SINCE 1789, INCLUDING AMERICAN HISTORY
[January 10, 1917]

AMERICAN GOVERNMENT
[January 10, 1917]

 

Source: Harvard University Archives. Divisional and general examinations, 1915-1975 (HUC 7000.18). Box 6, Bound Volume (stamped “Private Library Arthur H. Cole”) “Divisional Examinations 1916-1927”.

Image Source:  Harry Elkins Widener Memorial Library. Harvard Class Album 1920, p. 65.

 

Categories
Agricultural Economics Harvard Problem Sets

Harvard. Problem set from agricultural economics. Carver, ca. 1904

 

The problem set transcribed below was found in the Harvard University archives collection of syllabi, course outlines and reading lists in economics, 1895-2003; box 1. It was (mis-)filed in the folder “Economics, 1904-05”.  The problem set is clearly identified as belonging to Economics 23. This semester course, “The Economics of Agriculture, with special reference to American conditions”, was taught by Professor Thomas Nixon Carver, but according to the annual report of the president of Harvard College, the course was not offered in 1904-05 though it was indeed offered during the immediately preceding academic year. I have assumed that the problem set was printed for the second term of the academic year 1903-1904. This is consistent with the library time stamp on the problem set (March 7, 1905), i.e. it cannot have come from later years.

From Carver’s autobiography, Recollections of an Unplanned Life, we know that his textbook, Principles of Rural Economics (1911) was based upon this course. For a long-form course reading list, one can consult the bibliography, pp. xi-xviii, in the textbook.

Previously transcribed and posted artifacts from Carver’s agricultural economics course:

Course enrollment and final exam for 1914-15.

Course syllabus for 1917.

Course examination from 1918.

________________________

Trace of the 1904 problem set found in Carver’s 1911 textbook

Note:  Column (Field A) is Table A p. 180; Column (Field C) is Table B p. 181

Source: Thomas Nixon Carver, Principles of Rural Economics, (1911).

________________________

From Thomas Nixon Carver’s Autobiography.

I have mentioned the three strenuous years 1900 to 1903, and that I served the three following years, 1903-1906, as chairman of the Division of History, Government, and Economics. Before leaving for my sabbatical year abroad in 1906, I had resigned as chairman of the Division. In the fall of 1907 I was back in Cambridge with no administrative responsibilities and ready to settle down to teaching and writing. By this time I had come to be recognized as one of the pioneers in this country in the field of agricultural economics. One of the difficulties in the teaching of that subject was the lack of written material. Textbooks were needed and I began to plan one of my own. Before I got well started Professor Liberty Hyde Bailey of Cornell asked me to write a brief historical sketch of American agriculture for his Cyclopedia of American Agriculture which he was preparing. I under took this, not realizing how much work it would require. The material, such as there was, was widely scattered and there was no guide to indicate where to look for it. However, with much toil and sweat I finished the chapter.

Then came a request for an account of the introduction of various crops and farm animals into this country. That was a still harder job but I finished it in time. I was able, later, to use a part of the material in my book, “Principles of Rural Economics,” which Ginn & Company published in 1911.

This book did a great deal to popularize agricultural economics in this country. Henry C. Taylor’s “Introduction to the Study of Agricultural Economics” had preceded it, but, while an excellent introduction, had not made much of an appeal outside the agricultural colleges. My “Principles” sold well. As I remember it, 40,000 copies were sold the first year, and it was favorably reviewed in a number of journals…

…The course on rural economics appealed to a limited number of students, but continued to be elected by enough to make a fair-sized class…

Source: Thomas Nixon Carver. Recollections of an Unplanned Life, p. 171.

________________________

Course description

[Economics] 23 2hf. The Economics of Agriculture, with special reference to American conditions. Half-course (second half-year). Tu., Th., at 1.30. Professor Carver.

Omitted in 1904-05.

            A study of the relation of agriculture to the whole industrial system, the relative importance of rural and urban economics, the conditions of rural life in different parts of the United States, the forms of land tenure and methods of rent payment, the comparative merits of large and small holdings, the status and wages of farm labor, the influence of farm machinery, farmers’ organizations, the marketing and distribution of farm products, agricultural credit, the economic aspects of public roads, irrigation, forestry, etc., the policy of the government toward agriculture, and the probable future of American agriculture.

The course will be conducted by means of lectures, discussions and reports, with some special investigations of local conditions.

 

Source: Harvard University. Faculty of Arts and Sciences. Division of History and Political Science comprising the Departments of History and Government and Economics, 1904-05. University Publications, New Series, No. 129 (May 16, 1904), p. 47.

________________________

Course enrollment, 1903-04

[Economics] 23 2hf. Professor Carver.—The Economics of Agriculture, with special reference to American conditions.

Total 99: 5 Graduates, 32 Seniors, 28 Juniors, 17 Sophomores, 2 Freshmen, 15 Others.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College, 1903-04, p. 67.

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

Note:  The course was indeed not offered in 1904-05, though course enrollments were reported for Carver’s courses Economic 3 “Principles of Sociology. Theories of Social Progress”; Economics 13 “Methods of Economic Investigation”; Economics 14a “The Distribution of Wealth”; Economics 14b “Methods of Social Reform. Socialism, Communism, the Single Tax, etc.”

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College, 1904-05, pp. 74 ff.

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

Course enrollment, 1905-06

[Economics] 23 2hf. Professor Carver.—The Economics of Agriculture, with special reference to American conditions.

Total 42: 4 Graduates, 10 Seniors, 11 Juniors, 14 Sophomores, 1 Freshman, 2 Others.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College, 1905-06, p. 73.

________________________

Time stamp: “Harvard College Library, MAR 7, 1905”

HARVARD UNIVERSITY
ECONOMICS 23

Amount of corn grown with varying amounts of labor on a given amount of land.

Number of days’ labor of a man and team with the appropriate tools.

 Product, in bushels, on each of four fields of ten acres each.
Field A. Field B. Field C.

Field D.

5

 50 45 40 35
10 150 140 130

120

15

 270 255 240 255 [sic]
20 380 360 300

280

25

 450 425 350 325
30 510 480 390

360

35

 560 520 420 385
40 600 550 440

400

45

 630 570 450 410
50 650 575 455

415

 

The following problems are based on the above table:—

Problem 1. Assuming that the labor of a man and team, with the appropriate tools, costs a farmer five dollars a day, and that corn is worth forty cents a bushel, how many days of such labor could he most profitably devote to the cultivation of each of the four fields?

Problem 2. Assuming that corn is worth only 33 1/3 cents a bushel, how much labor, etc., could he most profitably apply to the cultivation of each field,—the cost of labor, etc., remaining the same?

Problem 3. Assuming that a farmer has only 200 days’ labor to use, but that he can have rent free an indefinite amount of land of the grade of Field A, how much land could he most profitably use? How much land of the grade of Field C could he most profitably use?

Problem 4. How much land of each grade could he most profitably use if he had to pay five dollars an acre rent, corn being worth fifty cents a bushel, other conditions the same as in Problem 3?

Problem 5. Assuming that the two fields A and C are owned by the same farmer, and that he has but 20 days’ labor which he can devote to their cultivation, how could these 20 days be most profitably distributed among them? How could 25 days be most profitably distributed? 35 days? 50 days? 60 days? 70 days? 90 days?

 

Source: Harvard University Archives. Syllabi, course outlines and reading lists in economics, 1895-2003. Box 1. Folder “Economics, 1904-05”.

Image Source: Thomas Nixon Carver in Harvard Class Album 1906.

Categories
Berkeley Bibliography Gender Socialism Suggested Reading Syllabus

Berkeley. References for contemporary theories of social reform. Peixotto, 1906

 

The topics and references for the course “Contemporary Theories of Social Reform” taught by Jessica B. Peixotto in the economics department of the University of California (Berkeley) in 1906 come from that early era when sociology and social policy were still established fields within economics departments. Peixotto was the second woman to have been awarded a Ph.D. at the University of California as well as to have become the first woman to attain the rank of full-professor there. Two short biographies have been included in this post.

The printed syllabus to her course runs 29 pages and the entire list of topics and references that make up the syllabus have been transcribed (OCR + copy/paste) for this post. I have corrected many typos I have found, but I’ll warn users that while I have tried to keep new typos from adding to the noise, I am sure that many typos remain, especially from the original typesetting. Caveat lector!

____________________

Jessica Blanche Peixotto, Economics: Berkeley
1864-1941
Professor of Social Economics, Emeritus

Jessica Blanche Peixotto, born in New York, October 9, 1864, essentially belonged to California–to both the State and the University. She came to the state in her early childhood, and her connection with the University lasted from her enrollment in 1891 until her death, October 19, 1941, a full fifty years. Graduated in 1894, awarded the degree of Ph.D. in 1900 (the second woman to receive this distinction), made a member of the teaching staff in 1904, in 1918 given the full rank of professor (the first woman thus honored), in 1936 she received the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws.

Miss Peixotto’s career covered three fields. As a writer she published French Revolution and Modern French Socialism (1901), Getting and Spending at the Professional Standard of Living (1927), and numerous reports and articles in periodicals.

In the field of public service she was a member of the Berkeley Commission of Public Charities (1910-1913), and of the State Board of Charities and Corrections (1912-1924). On the latter board she served as chairman of the Committee on Children, and of the Committee on Research. During the first World War she served with the Council of National Defense as a member of a subcommittee of Women in Industry, and of the Committee on Child Welfare of the General Medical Board. In 1918 she received the more important appointment as Executive Chairman of the Committee on Child Welfare of the Women’s Committee of the Council, and later in the same year she was Chief of the Child Conservation Section.

But most to be remembered is her distinguished service in the University of California. The courses she offered included Contemporary Socialism, Control of Poverty, The Child and the State, the Household as an Economic Agent, and Crime as a Social Problem. In the later years of her teaching her interest shifted somewhat to problems of the consumer and general economic theory, culminating in a graduate seminar on the History of Economic Thought. Unstinting in the time and attention given to the advanced courses, she stimulated and inspired her students, proof of which is given in their contributions to the memorial volume, Essays in Social Economics, published in her honor in 1935 by the University of California Press.

In addition to formal instruction, Miss Peixotto served both the University and the community by organizing the first training in California for social work. This developed, in 1917, into a professional and graduate curriculum in the Department of Economics, later to become the Department of Social Welfare.

In 1923, under her chairmanship, the Heller Committee for Research in Social Economics was established at the University. This chairmanship she held until she was made Professor Emeritus in 1935.

The University as a whole, and more especially those in the Department of Economics, have been enriched by association with Dr. Peixotto. She was primarily an economist and insisted on laying a firm basis of economics for all her social work. But, as Professor Wesley Mitchell said in the memorial volume, her interests were so wideranging that her instruction has given intellectual stimulus not only to social workers and sociologists but also to psychologists, pediatricians, psychiatrists, economists, statisticians, and lawyers.

Fitly was she characterized in the citation when given the honorary degree of LL.D.: “Chosen counselor of the State in matters concerning the protection of children and the care of the unfortunate; social economist marshaling stubborn facts in the service of mankind; comrade among students, inspiring teacher, true lover of humanity.”

Source:  University of California. In Memoriam, 1941. pp. 24-25.

Image Source: University of California archive picture of Jessica Blanche Peixotto (UARC PIC 1300:004) from webpage “Women at CAL: When California Passed the Woman Suffrage Amendment, 1910-1914/Room 3“.

____________________

JESSICA BLANCHE PEIXOTTO
1864 – 1941
by Judith R. Baskin

Jessica Blanche Peixotto, a member of a prominent Sephardic family distinguished for its long history of intellectual, philanthropic, and cultural contributions to the United States, broke gender boundaries throughout her career as a social economist and university professor. She was born in 1864 in New York City, the only daughter and oldest child of Raphael Peixotto, a prosperous Ohioan involved in trade with the South, and Myrtilla Jessica (Davis) Peixotto, originally of Virginia. In 1870, Raphael Peixotto moved his family and business to San Francisco. Jessica Peixotto’s four brothers were Edgar, a San Francisco attorney; Ernest Clifford, an artist and author; Eustace, director of public school athletics in San Francisco; and Sidney Salzado, a social worker.

After high school graduation in 1880, Peixotto acquiesced to family disapproval of her ambitions for higher education, continuing her studies at home through private instruction. In 1891, however, she enrolled at the University of California at Berkeley, receiving a bachelor’s degree in 1894, and continued on to graduate study in political science and economics. She received a Ph.D. in 1900, the second given to a woman at the University of California. Peixotto’s thesis The French Revolution and Modern French Socialism, published in 1901, was based on independent research undertaken at the Sorbonne in 1896–1897.

In 1904, Jessica Peixotto joined the faculty of the University of California at Berkeley as a lecturer in sociology. Her appointment was soon transferred to the economics department, where she taught until her retirement in 1935. In 1918, Peixotto was the first woman to earn the rank of full professor at Berkeley. Her service as head of her department was also a first for a woman there. National honors include her election as vice president of the American Economic Association in 1928. Following her retirement, Peixotto received honorary doctorates in law from Mills College in 1935 and from the University of California in 1936.

Peixotto’s published works include Getting and Spending at the Professional Standard of Living: A Study of the Costs of Living an Academic Life (1927), and Cost of Living Studies. II. How Workers Spend a Living Wage: A Study of the Incomes and Expenditures of Eighty-Two Typographers’ Families in San Francisco (1929). A collection of papers and comments Essays in Social Economics in Honor of Jessica Blanche Peixotto (1935) provides full details of her life and published writings.

Throughout her career, Peixotto was deeply committed to social causes, serving for twelve years on the California State Board of Charities and Correction. During World War I, she worked in Washington, first as executive chairperson of the child welfare department of the Women’s Committee of the Council of National Defense, and then as chief of the council’s child conservation section. She was also a member of the Consumers’ Advisory Board of the National Recovery Administration in 1933. At the University of California, Peixotto founded a program within the economics department that ultimately led to a professional school of social work.

Jessica Peixotto died in October 1941. While proud of her Jewish background, she was not involved in the Jewish community or any Jewish causes. Her funeral service, followed by cremation, was conducted by a representative of the Unitarian Society, together with the vice president and provost of the University of California.

Source:  Jessica Blanche Peixotto webpage at the Encyclopedia of Jewish Women.

____________________

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS

TOPICS AND REFERENCES FOR
ECONOMICS 42
CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF SOCIAL REFORM

BERKELEY: THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
1906

 

PLAN OF THE COURSE:

    1. — The Subject in General.
    2. — Contemporary Political Socialism.
    3. — Critical Discussion of the Doctrines of Marxism.
    4. — Communism and Anarchism.
    5. — Social Reform Movements with Less Extensive Programs.
    6. — Utopianism.

PART I.— THE SUBJECT IN GENERAL.

  1. Nature and Scope of the Subject.
  2. Definition.
  3. Classification,—its Difficulties, its Necessity.

General Bibliography:

Bibliographies:

Stammhammer: Bibliographie des Socialismus u. Communismus. Jena, Fischer, Bd. I, 1898; Bd. II, 1900.

Documente des Sozialismus, edited by Ed. Bernstein. Berlin, 1901 and succeeding years.

Encyclopedias:

Bliss: Encyclopedia of Social Reform. Funk & Wagnalls Co., 1897.

Stegman and Hugo: Handbuch des Socialismus. Zürich, Verlags-Magazin, 1897.

General Studies:

Biederman, Karl: Vorlesungen über Sozialismus und Sozialpolitik. Breslau, Schottlander, 1900.

Bourguin, Maurice: Les systèmes socialistes et l’évolution économique. Paris, Colin, 1904.

Brooks, John Graham: The Social Unrest. Macmillan, N. Y., 1903.

Diehl, Karl: Über Sozialismus, Kommunismus u. Anarchismus. Jena, Fischer, 1906.

Ely, Richard T.: The Labor Movement in America. N. Y., Crowell & Co., 1886.

Ely, Richard T.: French and German Socialism in Modern Times. N. Y., Harper & Bros., 1883.

Socialism and Social Reform. N. Y., T. Y. Crowell & Co., 1894.

Graham, W.: Socialism, New and Old. London, Kegan Paul, 1891.

Herkner, Heinrich: Die Arbeiterfrage. Berlin, J. Guttentag, 1902.

Kirkup, T.: History of Socialism. London, Black, 1900.

Laveleye, Emile de: Le Socialisme Contemporain. Alcan, Paris, 1886. (Eng. trans.: The Socialism of To-day, by G. H. Orpen, London, Field & Tuer, 1885.)

Leroy-Beaulieu, Paul: Le Collectivisme, examen critique du nouveau socialisme. Paris, Guillaumin, 1885.

Essais sur la Répartition des Richesses et sur la Tendance à une moindre Inégalité des Conditions. Paris, Guillaumin, 1888.

La Question Ouvrier aux XIX Siècle. Paris, Charpentier, 1882.

Menger, Anton: Das Recht auf den vollen Arbeitsertrag. Stuttgart, Cotta, 1886. (Eng. trans.: The Right to the Whole Product of Labor, Macmillan, 1899.)

Pareto, V.: Les Systèmes Socialistes. Giard et Brière, Paris, 1902. 2 vols.

Pesch, Heinrich: Liberalismus, Socialismus, und christliche Gesellschaftsordnung. Freiburg i. Br., Herd’sche Verlagshandlung, 3 Bde., 1893-1900. (See particularly 3rd vol.)

Rae, John: Contemporary Socialism. London, Swan Sonnenschein, 1898.

Schäffle, Dr. A. E. F.: Die Quintessenz des Socialismus. Gotha., Perthes, 1891. (Eng. trans.: Quintessence of Socialism.)

The Impossibility of a Social Democracy, being a supplement to the “Quintessence of Socialism,” with a preface by Bernard Bosanquet. London, S. Sonnenschein, 1892.

Sombart, Werner: Sozialismus und soziale Bewegung. Fünfte Auflage, 1905. (Eng. trans, of 1st edition: Socialism and the Social Movement in the Nineteenth Century. N. Y., Putnam, 1898.)

 

PART II.— CONTEMPORARY POLITICAL SOCIALISM.

1. Marxism.

(a) The Theory.

1a. Its statement by the founders.

Engels, Friedrich: Herrn Eugen Dührings Umwälzung der Wissenschaft. Stuttgart, Dietz, 1894.

Marx, Karl: Das Kapital. Hamburg, Meissner, 1882-98. Ill Bde. (Eng. trans.: Capital, London, Swan Sonnenschein, 1888. Students pressed for time may, without great disadvantage, consult Aveling, Edw.: “The Student’s Marx, an Introduction to the Study of Karl Marx’s ‘Capital.’” London, Swan Sonnenschein, 1892.)

Marx, Karl, and Engels, Fr.: Manifesto of the Communist Party, 1848. (This remains the “Bible” of socialism, and should be carefully read by every student.)

Lassalle, Ferdinand: Reden und Schriften. 3 Bde., herausgegeben von Ed. Bernstein, Berlin, Verlag Vorwärts, 1891. (Eng. trans.: of the “Arbeiterprogramm” by Peters, “Working-man’s Programme and Addresses.” N. Y., International Publishing Co., 1898.)

Aus dem literarischen Nachlass von Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels und Ferdinand Lassalle. Herausgegeben von Franz Mehring, Stuttgart, Dietz, 1901-4. 4 Bde. (A collection of the greatest interest to students of the writings of these three founders of the Marxian movement.)

2a. Modern presentations of the theory.

Bernstein, Ed.: Die Voraussetzungen des Sozialismus und die Aufgaben der Sozialdemokratie. Stuttgart, Dietz, 1899.

Blatchford, Robert: Merrie England. Chicago, Chas. Kerr, & Co.

Deville, Gabriel: Principes Socialistes. Paris, Giard et Brière, 1896.

Ensor, R. C. K.: Modern Socialism. Harper & Bros., N. Y., 1904.

Fabian Essays in Socialism. London, Fabian Society, 1890.

Fabian Tracts (1-126), 1884-1906. Notably Nos. 5, 13, 15, 51, 69, 72.

Ghent, J. Wm.: Mass and Class. N. Y., London, Macmillan, 1904.

Guesde, Jules: Quatre ans de Lutte de classe à la Chambre.

Guesde, J., et Lafargue. P.: Le Program du Parti Ouvrier, son Histoire, ses Considérations, ses Articles. Lille, Imprimerie du Parti Ouvrier, 1894.

Hyndman, H. M.: The Economics of Socialism. London, Twentieth Century Press, 1896.

Kautsky, Karl: Das Erfurter Programm in seinen grundsätzlichen Theilen erlaütert. Stuttgart, Dietz, 1892.

Die Soziale Revolution. Berlin, Verlag “Vorwärts,” 1903. (Eng. trans.: The Social Revolution. Chas. H. Kerr & Co., Chicago.)

Kautsky, K., und Schönlank, Bruno: Grundsätze und Forderungen der Sozialdemokratie. Berlin, Verlag “Vorwärts,” 1892.

Labriola, A.: Socialisme et Philosophie. Paris, Giard et Brière, 1899.

Liebknecht, Wm.: Was die Socialdemokraten sind und was Sie wollen. Chemnitz, Albin Langer, 1894. (Eng. trans.: Socialism, What It Is and What It Seeks to Accomplish. Chas. H. Kerr & Co., Chicago.)

Menger, Anton: Neue Staatslehre. Jena, Fischer, 1903.

Neue Sittenlehre. Jena, Fischer, 1905.

Mills, W. T.: The Struggle for Existence. Chicago, International School of Social Economy, 1904.

Morris, Wm., and Bax, E. B.: Socialism, Its Growth and Outcome. London, Swan Sonnenschein, 1897.

Spargo, John: Socialism. N. Y., Macmillan, 1906.

Yandervelde, Emile: Le Collectivisme. Bruxelles, Au Journal du Peuple, 1896.

Le Collectivisme et la Révolution Industrielle. Paris, Librairie Georges Bellais, 1900. (Eng. trans.: Collectivism and Industrial Revolution. Chicago, Chas. H. Kerr & Co., Standard Socialist Series No. 2.)

(b) The makers and propagators of the theory.

On Karl Marx:

Böhm-Bawerk, Eugen V.: Zum Abschluss des Marxischen Systems. Berlin, 1896. (Eng. trans.: Karl Marx and the close of his system. London, Fisher Unwin, 1898.)

Engels, Fr.: Karl Marx. (Handwörterbuch d. Staatswiss, IV, 1892.)

Liebknecht, Wm.: Karl Marx zum Gedächtnis. Nürnberg, 1896. (Eng. trans.: Karl Marx. Standard Socialist Series No, 1, Chicago, Chas. H. Kerr & Co.)

Liebknecht über Marx. (Neue Zeit, Jhrg. 15, 1896-97.)

Lafargue, P.: Karl Marx, Persönliche Erinnerungen. (Neue Zeit, Jhrg. 9, 1890-91.)

Mehring, Franz: Aus dem literarischen Nachlass, etc. Bd. I, pp. 1-57.

Nieuwenhuis, Domela: Karl Marx in Memoriam. Amsterdam.

Chapters in Kirkup, Rae, Russell, Sombart, etc

On Engels:

Kautsky, K.: Friedrich Engels und das Milizsystem. (Neue Zeit, Jhrg. 17, 1898-99.)

Friedrich Engels. (Züricher Socialdemokrat, Nos. 45-50, 1887.) (Eng. trans.: Fr. Engels, his Life, Work, and Writings. Chas. H. Kerr & Co., Chicago.)

Sombart, W.: Friedrich Engels, 1820-95, Ein Blatt zur Entwickelungsgeschichte des Socialismus. Berlin, 1895.

On Ferdinand Lassalle:

Becker, B.: Die Arbeiteragitations Lassalle, 1875.

Bernstein, Ed.: Ferdinand Lassalle und seine Bedeutung in der Geschichte der Sozialdemokratie in “Reden und Schriften,” Bd. I, pp. 5-189. (Eng. trans.: Ferdinand Lassalle as a social reformer. London, Swan Sonnenschein, 1893.)

Dawson, W. H.: German Socialism and Ferdinand Lassalle. London, Swan Sonnenschein, 1888.

Meredith, George: The Tragic Comedians.

Chapters in Kirkup, Rae, Russell, Sombart, etc.

(c) German Social Democracy (Socialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands).

1c. History of its development as a political party.

Bouffé, Gaston: Le Parti socialiste allemande, son évolution. Paris, A. Chevalier Marescq, 1903.

Bourdeau, J.: Le socialisme allemand et le nihilisme russe. Paris, Alcan, 1892.

Mehring, F.: Zur Geschichte der deutschen Sozialdemokratie. Stuttgart, Dietz, 1897-98. (Geschichte des Socialismus in Einzeldarstellung. Bd. 3.)

Milhaud, E.: La démocratie socialiste allemande. Paris, Alcan, 1903.

Russell, Bertrand: German Social Democracy. London, Longmans, 1896, pp. 69-116.

Stegman und Hugo: Articles — International Arbeiterassociation, Sozialistischen Arbeiterpartei, Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands.

Sombart: Sozialismus, etc. Pp. 201-208.

2c. Party organization. — Program. —Party tactics. —Methods of propaganda.

Bernstein, Ed.: Die heutige Sozialdemokratie in Theorie u. Praxis. Munich, Beck & Co., 1906.

Mehring, F.: op. cit.

Milhaud, E.: op. cit., pp. 51-181.

Russell, B.: op. cit., pp. 116-143.

Stegman u. Hugo: Articles — Taktik, Program.

To follow the movement at first hand, consult:

Protokoll über die Verhandlungen des Parteitags der Socialdemokratischen Partei Deutschlands from Halle (1890) to Jena (1905). Of these, that of Erfurt (1891), Dresden (1903), and Jena (1905) are of special interest.

Vorwärts. Berlin. Central official organ (daily).

Neue Zeit. Stuttgart, Dietz. Official magazine ed. by K. Kautsky (weekly).

Socialistische Monatshefte. Berlin. Publication representing the less radical group (monthly).

In Freien Stunden and Die Neue Welt. Literary publications which make a dignified attempt to spread artistic and intellectual ideals among the working classes.

Wahre Jacob. Stuttgart. Comic paper with no mean influence.

Die Gleichheit. (Interests of women workers), ed. by Clara Zetkin.

3c. The party in action today.

Revisionism. — Internationalism. — The agrarian question. — Relation to coöperation. — To trade-unionism. — Anti-semitism. — Syndicalism.

Bebel, A.: Unsere Ziele. Berlin, Buchhandlung “Vorwärts,” 1903.

Göhre, Paul: Die Agrarische Gefahr. Berlin, Verlag “Vorwärts,” 1902.

Kautsky, K.: Der Parlementarismus, die Volksgesetzgebung u. die Sozialdemokratie. Stuttgart, Dietz, 1893.

Mehring, F.: op, cit.,

Milhaud, E.: op. cit., pp. 181-517.

Russell, B.: op. cit., pp. 143-171.

4c. Austrian movement.

Stegman u. Hugo: Article, Oesterreich.

Deutsch, J.: Zur Geschichte der Arbeiterbewegung in Ungarn. (Die Zeit, Nr. 162. Wein, Nov. 6, 1897.)

Gumplowicz, Ladisl: Mouvement social. Autriche (Rev. internat. de sociologie, II, 1894).

Kcral, August: Zur Geschichte der Arbeiterbewegung Oesterreichs, 1867-94. Berlin, 1894.

Navay, L.: Die Arbeiterfrage in Alfeld mit besonderen Rucksicht auf die Arbeiterverhältnisse im Comitate Cznad. (Zeitschrift f. Volkwirtschaft, Soz. Pol. u. Verwalt, VI, 1897.)

Schatzl, J.: Die Corruption in der oesterreichischen Socialdemokratie. Wien (Leipzig, Liter. Anst., A. Schulze), 1896.

Schlesinger-Eckstein, T.: Die erste Konferenz deutscher Sozialdemokratinnen in Oesterreich (Neue Zeit, Jhrg. 16, 1897-98).

(d) Marxism in Latin Countries.

1d. France.

History of the growth of the Marxian movement in France. — Factions. — Programs. — Municipal Socialism in France. — Social influence. — Agrarian question.

Coubertin, Pierre de: France under the Third Republic, translated by I. F. Hapgood. New York, 1897, Ch. XIV.

Gaillard, Louis: La royaume socialiste, choses vues. Paris, Darajan, 1902.

Histoire socialiste (1789-1900) sous la direction de Jean Jaurès. Paris, Rouff, 1901.

Jaurès, Jean: Action Socialiste. Paris, Bellais (undated).

Lafargue, Paul: Die socialistiche Bewegung in Frankreich, 1876-90. (Neue Zeit, 1890.)

Socialism in France, 1876-96 (Fortnightly Rev., 1897, Sept.).

Laviron, P. E.: Le socialisme français et le collectivisme allemand. Paris, Allemane, 1895.

Lecky, W. H.: Democracy and Liberty. New York, 1896. Vol. II, pp. 224-369.

Louis, P.: Les Etapes du socialisme. Paris, Charpentier, 1903, pp. 235 et sq.

Métin, A.: La formation de la démocratie socialiste française.

Millerand, A.: Le socialisme réformiste français. Paris, Bellais, 1903.

Peixotto, J. B.: French Revolution and Modern French Socialism. New York, Crowell & Co., 1901. Ch. VI.

Sombart, W.: Sozialismus, etc. 5th ed., 1906. Pp. 208-214.

For movement at first hand, read:

Reports of the Congrès Generales des Organizations Socialistes. Paris, 1900, and succeeding years.

La Petite République. (Moderate group.) Paris (daily).

L ‘Humanité. Jaurès, editor. Paris. (Daily.)

La Revue Socialiste. Organ of Integral Socialists. (Monthly.)

Le Mouvement Socialiste. Organ of the radical group. (Fortnightly).

2d. Italy.

Marxism as it has become a political party in Italy. — The present political situation. — Special traits.

Gnocchi-Viani, O.: Dal mazzmianismo al socialismo. Colle, 1893.

Groppali, Alessandro: Le mouvement social en Italie (extrait de la Rev. Internat. de sociologie). Paris, Giard et Brière, 1897.

Loria, A.: II movemento operaio.

Nerbini: Cinquante Anni di socialismo nella Italia. Firenze, 1888.

Nitti, F. S.: Le mouvement économique et social en Italie en 1891. (Rev. sociale et politique, année 2, 1892.)

Sombart, W.: Sozialismus, etc. 5th ed. Pp. 235-239.

Der gegenwartige Stand der italienischen Arbeiterbewegung (Socialpol. Zentralbl. I, 1892).

Studien zur Entwickelungsgeschichte des italienischen Proletariats. (Arch. f. soc. Gesetzg. Bd. 6, 1893; Bd. 8, 1895.)

For first hand insight:

Bolletino della Direzione del Partito Socialista Italiano. Rome. (Monthly.)

Reports of meetings of congresses at Rome (1900), Imola (1902), Bologna (1904).

Avanti. Official organ of the radical socialists, editor, Enrico Ferri. Rome. (Daily.)

Nuova Antologia. Rome. (Monthly.)

L’Asino. Rome. (Comic weekly.)

Il Seme. Publication of the moderate group. Rome. (Fortnightly.)

3d. Spain.

General aspects of the movement in Spain.

Die sociale Bewegung in Spanien. (Jahrb. f. Socialwissenschaft, 1. u. 2, Zurich, 1879 and ’80).

Iglesias, Pablo: Die sozialistiche Arbeiterpartei in Spanien. (Neue Zeit, Jhrg. 10, 1891-92.)

Maze-Sencien, G.: Le socialisme en Espagne. (Extrait de la Rev. pol. et parl., 1898, aout et sept.). Paris, Davy, 1898.

Posada, A.: L’évolution sociale en Espagne, 1894 et 1895. Paris, Giard et Brière, 1896.

Le mouvement social en Espagne, 1896. (Extrait de la Revue internat. de sociologie.) Paris, Giard et Brière, 1897.

Le parti socialiste ouvrier Espagnol au congrès international de Paris de 1900. Madrid, Teodoro, 1901.

Stegman u. Hugo: Art. Spanien.

(e) Marxism in other Continental Countries.

1e. Belgium.

History and distinctive character of Belgian socialist movement.

Bertrand, Louis: Histoire de la Coöpération en Belgiqae. Bruxelles, 2 v.

Destrée, J., and Vandervelde, E.: Le Socialisme en Belgique. Paris, Giard et Brière, 1903.

Deutscher, Paul: The Socialist Movement in Belgium. The Workingmen’s Party (Free Review, 1896, March).

Sombart, W.: Sozialismus. 5th ed. Pp. 229-233.

Consult further:

Reports of Congrès du Parti ouvrier for 1885, and succeeding years.

Le Peuple. (Party organ.) Brussels. (Daily.)

2e. Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.

Baug, Gus.: Ein Blick auf die Geschichte der dänischen Sozialdemokratie. (Neue Zeit, Jhrg. 16, 1897-98.)

Jensen, Ad.: Le Socialisme en Danemark. Rev. d’économpolitique, X, 1896, June.

Knussden, Olsen S. and Olsen M.: Bericht der Sozialdemokratie in Dänemark. Bruxelles, P. Weissenbruch, 1891.

Lindeberg, F.: Die Arbeiterbewegung Dänemarks. (Schweiz. Blätter f. Wirtsch. u. Soz. Pol., Jhrg. 6, 1898.)

Martinet, C: Le socialisme en Danemark. Paris, Société d’éditions scientifique, 1893.

Sombart, W.: Sozialismus, etc. 5th ed., 1906. Pp. 233 et sq.

Stegman u. Hugo: Arts. Dänemark, Norwegen, Schweden.

3e. Switzerland.

Berghoff-Ising, Dr. Frz.: Die socialistische Arbeiterbewegung in der Schweiz. Leipzig, Duncker, Humboldt, 1895.

Die neuere socialistische Bewegung in der Schweiz. (Schmoller’s Jahrb. f. Gesetzg., Jhrg. 17, 1893.)

Le socialisme en Suisse. (Extrait de la Revue d’Econ. pol. X, 1896.) Paris, Larose, 1896.

Chez nous en Suisse ou les libertés helvétiques mises à nus. Génève, 1899.

Lang, Otto: Der Socialismus in der Schweiz. Berlin, Verlag der Socialistischen Monatshefte, 1902.

Müller, H.: Die schweizerische Socialdemokratie. (Schweiz. Blätter f. Wirtschaft u. Soz.-Pol., Jhrg. 6, 1898.)

4e. Russia.

Plechanoff, G.: Die Sozialpolitischen Zustande Russland im Jahre 1890. (Neue Zeit, Jhrg. 9, 1890-91.)

Stegman u. Hugo: Art. Russland.

Winiarsky, L.: Der Sozialismus in Russischen-Polen. Neue Zeit, Jhrg. 10, 1891-92.)

(f) Marxism Under Anglo-Saxon Influence.

1f. Marxist movement in England.

The development of the present movement in England.— The Social Democrats. — Fabianism. — Independent Labor Party. — Socialism in the Colonies.

Bernstein, Ed.: Politische Partei u. wirtschaftliche Interessen in England. (Neue Zeit, Jhrg. 15, 1896-97.)

Herron, G. D.: Impressions of the English Labor Movement. (Commons, 1898, Jan.)

Laveleye, E. de: Socialism of Today. 1885. Appendix.

Marx-Aveling, Eleanor: Die Arbeiterclassen-Bewegung in England. Nürnberg, Wörlein u. Co., 1895.

Métin, A.: Le socialisme en Angleterre. Paris, Alcan, 1897.

Un socialisme sans doctrine (on Australia and New Zealand). Paris, Alcan, 1901.

Shaw, B.: Fabian Socialism, What It Is and What It Has Done. Fabian Tract No. 41.

Verhaegan, P.: Socialistes anglais. Paris, Larose, 1898.

Webb, Sidney: Socialism in England. American Economic Association, 1889, April.

Woods, R. A.: English Social Movements. London, Swan Sonnenschein, 1895, pp. 38-78.

For the movement at first hand:

Clarion. Ed. by Robert Blatchford. London. (Weekly.)

Justice. Organ of Social Democratic Federation. London. (Weekly.)

Labor Leader. Official organ of I. L. P. (Monthly.)

Fabian News. Organ of Fabian Society. London. (Monthly.)

Reformer’s Year-Book.

2f. American Marxism.

The history of political socialism in the United States. — Distinctive traits. — Tendencies.

Ely, Richard T.: Labor Movement in America. N. Y., Crowell & Co., 1886.

Engels, Fr.: The Working-Class Movement in America. London, 1888.

Hilquit, Morris: History of Socialism in the United States. N. Y., Funk & Wagnalls Co., 1902.

Kerby, W. J.: Le Socialisme aux Etats-Unis. Bruxelles, (Goemaere, 1897.

Mills, W. T.: The Struggle for Existence. Ch. XLV.

Martiis: Il Socialismo negli Stati Uniti. 1891.

Walterhausen: Der moderne Socialismus in den Vereinigte Staaten von Amerika. 1890.

Sombart, W.: The historical development of the American proletariat. (Inter. Soc. Rev., Nov., 1905.)

For the movement at first hand:

Socialist Party Proceedings at National Convention, Chicago, 1904. Issued by National Committee, 269 Dearborn street, Chicago.

Party programmes (to be found annually in most American Almanacs).

Party magazines and newspapers, of which the best are, perhaps:

The Worker. New York. (Daily.)

Appeal to Reason (somewhat “yellow” journal). J. A. Wayland, editor. Girard, Kansas. (Daily.)

International Socialist Review. Chicago, Chas. H. Kerr & Co. (Monthly.)

Wilshire’s Magazine. New York, Wilshire Publishing Co. (Monthly.)

 

2. Non-Marxist Political Socialist Movements.

(a) Christian Socialism.

1a. Catholic Socialism.

Its founders. — Its special aims and its influence in the leading countries of the world.

Hitz, F.: Die Quintessenz der sociale Frage. Paderbom, Bonifacius, Dr., 1877.

Leroy-Beaulieu, Anatole: La papauté, le socialisme et la démocratie. Paris, Calmann Lévy, 1892. (Eng. trans.: Papacy, Socialism, and Democracy.)

Nitti, F. S.: Il socialismo cattolico. Torino, 1891. (Eng. trans.: Catholic Socialism. London, Swan Sonnenschein, 1895.)

Soderni, E.: Socialism and Catholicism. Longmans, 1896.

Stegman u. Hugo: Art. Christlicher Socialismus.

Valez, A.: Le socialisme catholique en France. Montauban, Granié, 1892.

Etudes sociales catholiques. Paris, A. Schulz et Friburg, 1892.

Best known periodicals:

Christlich-Sociale Blätter.

Revue du christianisme pratique.

La Réforme sociale (school of Le Play).

2a. “Christian” or Evangelical Socialism.

Its distinctive characteristics and political status in the several leading nations of the world.

Behrends, A. J. F.: Socialism and Christianity. N. T., Baker & Taylor, 1886.

Carter, J.: Christian Socialism in England. London, 1891.

Göhre, Paul: Die Evangelische-soziale Bewegung. Leipzig, 1896. (Eng. trans.: Evangelical-Social Movement in Germany, Its History and Aims. London, Ideal Public Union, 1898.)

Headlam, Rev. S. D.: Christian Socialism. Fabian Tract No. 42.

Kaufman, M.: Christian Socialism. London, Kegan Paul, 1888.

Naumann, P.: National-Socialen Katechismus. Berlin, Buchverlag der “Zeit,” 1897.

New Christian Socialism. (Quarterly Rev., 1894, July.)

Stöcker, Adf.: Selbsthülfe! Staatshülfe! Gotteshülfe! Essen, Gladbach, 1891.

Stubbs, C. W.: A Creed for Christian Socialists. London, Reeves, 1897.

Best known periodicals:

Church Reformer (London).

Christian Socialist (London).

Die Zeit (organ für nationales Sozialismus auf christliche Grundlage, Berlin).

Hilfe (Frankfurt, a. M.)

Revue du Christianisme social.

See also “Arbeiterbibliothek” (Göttinger), ed. by P. Naumann.

3a. The problem of Christian Socialism.

Adler, Felix: Life and Destiny. N. Y., McClure, Phillips & Co., 1905. Esp. pp. 75-141.

Clifford, Dr. John: Socialism and the Teaching of Christ. Fabian Tract No. 78.

Mathews, Shailer: The Social Teachings of Jesus.

Peabody, Francis G.: Jesus Christ and the Social Question. Macmillan, 1903.

Religion of an Educated Man.

Stubbs, Rev. C. W.: Christ and Economics. Isbister, 1893.

(b) “Philanthropic” Socialism.

What it is, and how it may, or may not, be political socialism. — Some of the representatives of this type of socialism. — Its influence.

Bernstein, Ed.: Zur Frage— Socialliberalismus oder Collectivismus. Berlin, 1900.

Brooks, John G.: The Social Problem. N. Y., Macmillan, 1902.

Hobhouse, L. T.: The Labor Movement. Fischer, Unwin & Co., 1898.

Hobson, J. A.: The Social Problem. N. Y., Pott, 1902.

Kelly, Edmond: Government or Human Evolution. Longmans, N. Y., 1900-01. 2 vols.

Kirkup, T.: History of Socialism. Pp. 273-311.

Wells, H. G.: Mankind in the Making. London, Chapman and Hall, 1904.

(c) State Socialism.

What it is and what sets it apart from the Marxist and other movements. — Katheder-Sozialismus.

Block, Maurice: Quintessence of State Socialism.

Bryce, R. J.: A Short Study of State Socialism. London, E. Baynes & Co., 1903.

Dawson, W. H.: Bismarck and State Socialism. London, Swan Sonnenschein, 1890.

Kautsky, K.: Vollmar und der Staatssozialismus. (Neue Zeit, Jhrg. 10, 1891-92.)

Laveleye, Ch.: Socialism of Today. Ch. XII.

Métin, A.: Un Socialisme sans doctrine. Paris, Alcan, 1901.

Millerand, A.: Le socialisme réformiste.

Smith, Hubert L.: Economic Aspects of State Socialism. London, Simpkin, 1887.

Wagner, A.: Vortrag über Sozialismus, Sozialdemokratie, Katheder und Staatssozialismus. Berlin, Vaterländ. Verl. Anst. in Komm., 1894.

Die akademischer Nationalökonomie u. die Socialismus. Berlin, Becker, 1895.

 

PART III.— CRITICAL DISCUSSION OF THE DOCTRINE OF MARXIAN SOCIALISM.

1. Marxist Analysis of Industrial Society.

(a) Marxist Classification of the Factors in Industrial Life.

Labor and proletariat. — Capital and bourgeoisie, and whether these terms are, and can be, used interchangeably.

Kautsky, K.: The Social Revolution, esp. sec. 43.

Marx, K.: Communist Manifesto. Passim.

The “leisure class,” what socialists mean by it, and how they regard it.

See, besides writings of socialists previously cited:

Lafargue, Paul: Le droit à la paresse. Lille, Delory, 1891.

Massart, J., et Vandervelde, E.: Parasitisme organique et parasitisme social. Paris, Reinwald, Schleicher Frères, 1898. (Eng. trans.: Parasitism, organic and social. London, Swan Sonnenschein, 1895.)

Students will do well to read in this connection:

Veblen, Thorstein: Theory of the Leisure Class. N. Y., Macmillan, 1902.

(b) Surplus Value.

The Theory.

Aveling, Edw.: Students’ Marx. Pp. 1-48.

Bernstein, Ed.: Die Voraussetzungen des Sozialismus, etc. Pp. 37-46.

Kautsky, K.: Karl Marx’s Oekonomische Lehre. Pp. 3-116.

Marx, K.: Capital. I, pp. 1-311.

Validity of the theory. — Its relation to orthodox economic findings. — How far it is fundamental to socialistic economic theory.

Böhm-Bawerk: Karl Marx and the Close of His System.

(c) Law of Concentration of Capital.

What it is.

Marx, K.: Capital. Pp. 625-736.

Aveling, Edw.: Students’ Marx. Pp. 138-157.

Kautsky, K.: Marx’s Oekonomische Lehren. Pp. 116-177.

Vandervelde, E.: Collectivism and Industrial Evolution. Pt. 1.

How far dispassionate investigation validates this law.

Bourguin, M.: Les systèmes socialistes. Ch. XI, Ch. XII, Ch. XIII, Annexes III, IV, V.

The Trusts in socialist theory.

Lafargue. P.: Les Trusts Américains. Paris, Giard et Brière, 1897.

Lloyd, H.: Wealth Against Commonwealth. Harper, 1894.

Macrosty, H. W.: Trusts and the State. Richards, 1901.

Vail, Chas.: The Trust Question. Chicago, Chas. H. Kerr & Co. (Pocket Library of Socialism No. 21.)

Mills, Walter Thomas: The Struggle for Existence. Ch. X.

Socialist attitude toward mechanical production. — Question of house industry vs. factory labor.

(d) Theory of Commercial Crises.

Socialist explanation of them. — Comparison of this explanation with other ways of accounting for them.

Bernstein, Ed.: Voraussetzungen des Sozialismus, etc. Pp. 66-83.

Kautsky, K.: Das Erfurter Programme. Pp. 86-104, 177-252.

(e) Theory of Increasing Misery.

What it is. — How far it is based on fact.

In addition to bibliography previously cited, see:

Why Are the Many Poor? Fabian Tract No. 1.

How far Marxian reformers expect the elimination of pauperism, and how far these expectations seem justified. — The question of unemployed in socialist theory.

Bebel, A.: Die Frau u. der Sozialismus, passim.

Kautsky, K.: Das Erfurter Programme. Pp. 104-166.

Renard, G.: Le régime socialiste. Pp. 152-186.

(f) The General Strike.

The conception viewed historically, and in contemporary socialist usage. — Objects.

Bernstein, Ed.: Der Strike als Politischer Kampfmittel. (Neue Zeit, Jhrg. 12, 1893-94.)

La Grève Générale et le Socialisme. Enquête Intérnationale. Paris, Odéon, 1904. (June, July, Aug. and Sept. Nos. of “Le Mouvement Socialiste.”)

Protokoll über die Verhandlung des Parteitags der Sozialdemokratischen Partei Deutschlands. Jena, 1905.

(g) Canons of Distribution.

Whether any are to be found in Marxist and related socialist theory, and if so, how far and in what way they promise more general enjoyment of the results of social production. — Whether socialist schemes expect to increase production, or control consumption. — Whether Marxists aim at distributive justice. — Economic efficiency under socialism.

(h) Competition.

Whether socialists expect the elimination of competition. — The claim that competition involves waste. — How far it is true. — Whether it is possible to eliminate competition from human affairs. — Whether it should be eliminated if it could be. — Whether industrial development is actually tending to diminish competition.

Kelly, Ed,: Government or Human Evolution. II, pp. 273-293.

Reeves, Sidney: The Cost of Competition. McClure, Phillips & Co., 1906.

2. Marxist Political Theory.

(a) The State in Socialist Interpretation.

What the State is held to be.— Its origin.— Its end.— The range of functions ascribed to it.

Deville, G.: Principes Socialistes. Pp. 174-181.

Renard, Georges: Le régime socialiste. Pp. 61-125.

(b) The Individual and His Rights.

Natural rights in Marxian theory. — Rights of the individual specifically or implicitly demanded by all socialists. — The grounds on which the demand for rights is formulated. — How far the word “natural” has disappeared.

Lafargue, P.: Le Droit à la paresse, passim.

Renard, G.: Le Régime socialiste. Alcan, 1904, pp. 24-61.

For views kindred to Marxian see, by way of comparison:

Hobson, J. A.: Social Problem. Bk. II, Chs. I and II.

Kelly, E.: Government or Human Evolution. I, Ch. I.

Menger, A.: Right to the Whole Product of Labor. Pp. 1-40.

Ritchie, D. G.: Natural Rights. London, 1895.

(c) Doctrine of Property.

The theory usually adopted as to the origin and function of property. — The changes in property relations which socialists have in view.

Lafargue, Paul: Evolution of Property from Savagery to Civilization. Swan Sonnenschein, 1891.

Lafargue, Paul, et Guyot, Yves: La propriété communiste par P. Lafargue; réfutation par Guyot. Paris, Delgrave, 1895.

Laveleye, Em. de: De la propriété et ses formes primitives. Paris, Baillière, 1874. (Eng. trans, by G. R. L. Marriott, London, 1878.)

Menger, A.: Right to the Whole Product of Labor. Pp. 157-175.

Willoughby, W. W.: Social Justice. London, Macmillan, 1900. Ch. IV.

(d) Social Democracy.

As to the form of government socialists propose. — What “social democracy” means additional to democracy. — Whether socialist understanding of democracy is the usual one. — Whether the democratic form of government is fundamental to a socialist state. — Whether economic freedom is the means to democracy, or democracy the means to economic freedom, and what economic freedom means.

Bernstein, Ed.: Vorausaetzungen des Socialismus. Pp. 118-140.

(e) Tendency to Belief in Decentralization.

Some reasons for this tendency. — The effects of the doctrine.

(f) Internationalism.

Its nature. — Its present popularity. — Whether adhesion to the doctrine implies diminished patriotism.

Jaurès, J.: Patriotisme et Internationalisme. Lille, Delory (undated.)

Renard, G.: Régime socialiste. Alcan, 1904. Pp. 68-74.

(g) The Family.

Socialist ways of accounting for its origin and its political and social function. — How socialists relate the institution of the family to the status of woman. — The relation between child and parent in the socialist theory.

Bebel, A.: Die Frau und der Sozialismus. Stuttgart, Dietz, 1891. (Eng. trans.: Woman in the Past, Present, and Future, of which many popular editions.)

Engels, F.:  Der Ursprung der Familie. Zürich, Verlags-Magazin, 1891. (Eng. trans.: Origin of the Family. Chicago, Chas. H. Kerr & Co.)

Pearson, Karl: Ethic of Freethought. London, Black, 1901. Pp. 354-431.

Russell, B. and A.: German Social Democracy. Pp. 175-195.

Mills, Walter Thomas: The Struggle for Existence. Ch. XI.

3. Marx’s Doctrine of Social Progress.

(a) The Ultimate Premises of Socialism.

As to whether there are any fixed premises, and whether these premises are those which socialists themselves define. — Whether pessimism or optimism is at the bottom of the movement. — The controversy between materialism and idealism.

Bernstein, Ed.: Das realistische und das idealistische Moment in Socialismus (in “Zur Geschichte und Theorie des Sozialismus, pp. 262-287.)

Engels, Fr.: Eugen Duhrings Umwalzung der Wissenschaft.

Jaurès, J., et Fafargue, P.: Idéalisme et Matérialisme. Paris, 1895. (Publications du groupe des étudiantes collectivistes.)

Labriola, A.: Socialisme et Philosophie. Paris, Giard et Brière, 1899.

Marx, K.: “Holy Family” in “Aus dem literarischen Nachlass,” etc.

Pearson, K.: Ethic of Freethought. London, Adam and Charles Black, 1901. Pp. 301-354.

(b) The Materialistic Conception of History.

The doctrine. — Its antecedents, and how far the theory is the special property of socialists. — The several forms in which the theory is taught. — Validity of the theory. — Its influence outside of socialist circles.

Barthe, P.: Philosophie der Geschichte als Sociologie. Pp. 303-353.

Calwer, Rich.: Das Kommunistiche Manifest u. die heutige Sozialdemokratie. Braunschweig, Gunther, 1894.

Engels, Fr.: Feuerbach, the Roots of the Socialist Philosophy.

Ferri, Enrico: Socialismo e Scienza positiva. Roma, 1894. (Eng. trans.: Socialism and Positive Science.)

Labriola, A.: Saggi intorna alla concezione materialistica della Storia. Loescher, 1902. (Eng. trans.: Essays on the Materialistic Conception of History.)

Loria, A.: Analisi della Proprietà Capitalista. Torino, Bocca, 1889.

Marx, K.: Misère de la Philosophie.

Communist Manifesto.

Masaryk, T. G.: [Die philosophischen und sociologischen] Grundlagen des Marxismus. Vienna, Könegen, 1899.

Seignobos, Ch.: La méthode historique appliquée aux sciences sociales. Alcan, 1901. Pp. 259-269.

Seligman, E. R. A.: Economic Interpretation of History. Macmillan, 1902.

Stein, Ludwig: Die soziale Frage im Lichte der Philosophie. Stuttgart, Enke, 1903. Pp. 302-312.

Weisengrün, Paul: Der Marxismus. Leipzig, Veit & Co., 1900. Pp. 36-212.

(c) Class Struggle.

The doctrine in exact terms. — The social classes it defines, and the basis used to distinguish these. — The contradictions involved in the theory of class struggle. — Whether there is a class struggle on the lines defined by Marxists, or on any lines.

Barthe, P.: Philosophie der Geschichte als Sociologie. Pp. 336-346.

Bauer, A.: Les Classes Sociales. Paris, Giard et Brière, 1902.

Bernstein, Ed.: Klassenkampf-Dogma u. Klassenkampf-Wirklichkeit. Zur Geschichte u. Theorie des Socialismus, pp. 382-406.

Kautsky, K,: Das Erfurter Programme. Pp. 31-86.

Marx, K.: Communist Manifesto.

Novikow, J.: Les luttes entre les sociétés humaines et leurs phases successives. Paris, Alcan, 1896.

Noyes, W. H.: The Evolution of the Class Struggle. Chicago, Chas. H. Kerr & Co. (Pocket Library of Socialism.)

Simon, A.: Class Struggle. Chas. H. Kerr & Co., Chicago. (Madden Lib. No. 2.)

Veblen, Thorstein: Theory of Business Enterprise. Macmillan. Esp. Chs. VI, VII, IX, X.

4. Consideration of the Leading Objections to Socialism.

Brünhuber, M.: Die heutige Sozialdemokratie. Fischer, Jena, 1906.

Clark, W.: The Limits of Collectivism (Contemporary Review, 1893).

Donisthorpe, W.: Individualism— A System of Politics. Macmillan, 1889.

Gilman, N. P.: Socialism and the American Spirit. Boston, Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1893.

Gladden, W.: Applied Christianity. Boston, Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1886. (Essay on The Strength and Weakness of Socialism.)

Guyot, Yves: La tyrannie socialiste. Paris, Delagrave, 1893. (Eng trans.: The Tyranny of Socialism. London, Swan Sonnenschein, 1894.)

Mackay, J., and others: A Plea for Liberty. Murray, 1892.

Mallock, W. H.: Classes and Masses. London, 1896.

Aristocracy and Evolution. N. Y., 1898.

Morley, John: Compromise. 2nd ed. rev. London, 1877.

Nicholson, J. Shield: Historical Progress and Ideal Socialism. London, Black, 1894.

Richter, Eugene: Die Sozialdemokraten, was sie wollen und was sie werken. Berlin, 1878.

Richter, Eugene: Socialdemokratische Zukunftsbilder. Berlin, Verlag “Fortschritt,” A. G., 1890. (Eng. trans.: Pictures of the Socialist Future. 1894. Sonnenschein.

Say, Léon: Contre le Socialisme. Paris, Leroy, 1896.

Schäffle, A. E. F.: The Impossibility of Social Democracy.

Spencer, Herbert: The Man versus the State.

Sumner, W. G.: What Social Classes Owe Each Other. N. Y., 1884.

Thiers, A.: Du droit de propriété. 2 vols. Paris, Didot, 1841. (Eng. trans.: Rights of Property.)

PART IV.— COMMUNISM AND ANARCHISM.

1. Communism.

Some notable recent attempts at communism. — General type of social organization under communism. — Psychology of the communist. — Tendencies and average results of communistic experiments.

Broome, Isaac: The Last Days of the Ruskin Coöperative Association.

Bulletin of U. S. Labor Dept. (article on Coöperative Communities in the U. S., by Rev. Alex. Kent).

Eastlake, Allan: Oneida Community. Redway, 1900.

Nordhoff, C: Communistic Societies of the U. S. London, Murray, 1875.

Winchell, Alex. C: Communism in America. (North American Review, 1888, May.)

2. Anarchism.

(a) Classification.

The several types of anarchism, and their representatives.

Bakounine, Michel: Oeuvres (especially Dieu et I’Etat).

Grave, Jean: La société mourante et l’anarchie. Paris, 1893.

La société future. Stock, 1895.

L’Individu et la société. 1897. 2nd ed.

L ‘Anarchie, son but, ses moyens. Paris, Stock, 1899.

Hertzka, Theodore: Freiland. (Translated by A. Ransom, N. Y., 1891.)

Kropotkin, Peter H.: La conquête du pain. Paris, 1892.

Parôles d’un révolutionaire.

Autour d’une vie. Paris, 1903. 2 vols. 1899(?).

L’anarchie, sa philosophie, son idéal. 1905(?).

Memoires d’un révolutionaire.

Fields, Factories, and Workshops. London, S. Sonnenschein, 1901.

Malato, Ch.: De la commune à l’anarchie. Paris, Stock, 1894.

Mackay, John: Der Anarchisten.

Michel, Louis: La Commune. Paris, Stock, 1898.

Most, Johann Joseph: Die Lösung der sociale Frage. 1876. Memoiren, 2 Bde., N. Y., 1903.

Reclus, Elisée: L’évolution, la révolution et l’idéale anarchique. Paris, 1902.

Spencer, Herbert: Social Statistics (1st ed., containing chapter on right of individual to ignore the State).

Tucker, Benj.: Instead of a Book. N. Y., Tucker, 1893. (Reprinted under the title “State, Socialism, and Anarchism.” London, Reeves, 1895.)

Yarros, Victor: Anarchism, Its Aims and Methods. Boston, 1887.

(b) The Theory in Practice.

The programmes. — Organization. — Methods of propaganda. — The relation of anarchism to socialism. — To individualism. — Herbert Spencer and anarchism. — Psychology of the anarchist.

Bernstein, Ed.: Die sociale Doktrin des Anarchismus (in Neue Zeit, Jahrg. 10, Bd. 1-2).

Basch, V.: L ‘individualisme anarchiste. Alcan, 1904.

Dubois, Felix: Le péril anarchiste. Paris, 1894. (Eng. trans.: The Anarchist Peril. Unwin, 1894.)

Garan, J.: L’anarchie et les anarchistes. Paris, 1885.

Ghio, Paul: L’anarchie aux Etats Unis. Paris, Colin, 1903.

Hamon, A.: Le psychology de l’anarchiste socialiste. Paris, Stock, 1895.

Lombroso, Cesare: Gli anarchici. Turin, 1894.

Plechanoff, G.: Anarchismus und Sozialismus. Berlin, 1894. (Eng. trans.: Anarchism and Socialism. Chicago, Chas. H. Kerr & Co.)

Shaw, Bernard: The Impossibilities of Anarchism. Fabian Tract No. 46.

Simons, A. M.: Socialism vs. Anarchy. Chicago, Chas. H. Kerr & Co. (Pocket Lib. of Socialism.)

Zenker, E. V.: Der Anarchismus. Kritische Geschichte der anarchistischen Theorien. Jena, 1895. (Eng. trans.: Anarchism, a Criticism and History of the Anarchist Theory. Putnam, 1897.)

PART V.— SOCIAL REFORMS WITH LESS EXTENSIVE PROBLEMS.

1. Land Nationalization and Single Tax.

The doctrine. — Methods of reform proposed. — The founder of the Single Tax movement, and some facts of his life which throw light on his theories. — Economic and social results expected. — Critical examination of the doctrine. — Relation of socialists to these movements.

An Essay on the Right of Property in Land. 1782. Reprinted, London, 1891, under the title “Birthright in Land.”

Cox, H.: Land Nationalization. London, Methuen, 1892.

Dawson, W. H.: Unearned Increment. London, Swan Sonnenschein, 1890.

Hobson: Coöperation in the Land.

Moore: Back to the Land.

Simons, A. M.: Single Tax vs. Socialism, Chicago, Chas, H. Kerr & Co. (Pocket Lib. of Socialism.)

Stubbs, C. W.: Land and the Laborer. London, Swan Sonnenschein, 1891,

Thackeray, S. W.: The Land and the Community. N. Y., Appleton & Co., 1889.

Among good criticisms of the theory:

Hobson, J. A.: The Influence of Henry George in England. (Fortnightly Review, 1897, December.)

Schäffle, A.: Inkorporation des Hypothekencredits. Tübigen, 1883.

Smart, W.: Taxation of Land Values and the Single Tax.

Walker, Francis A.: Land and Its Rent. Little, Brown & Co., Boston, 1883. Pp. 141-182.

Publications of the “Land and Property Defense League.”

2. Coöperation.

Coöperation from the social reform point of view. — Coöperation and communism. — Coöperation and profit sharing. — The several kinds of coöperative societies. — The status of the coöperative movement in the leading nations of Europe and America. — The outlook for coöperation. — Arguments in favor of the movement. — Its weaknesses. — Socialists’ attitude toward it.

Bertrand, Louis: Histoire de la coöpération en Belgique.

Gide, Ch.: La Coöpération. Paris, Librarie de la société du Recueil genéral des lois et des arrêts et du Journal du palais. 1900.

Holyoake, G. J.: History of Coöperation in England. London, 1875-85. 2 vols.

Hughes, Thomas, and Neale, Edward V.: A Manual for Coöperators. Manchester, 1888.

Hubert-Valleroux, P.: La Coöpération. Paris, 1904.

Jones, Benjamin: Coöperative Production. Oxford, The Clarendon Press, 1894.

Pissamiglio: Distributive Coöperative Societies.

Van Marken: Industrial Social Organization. Delft., 1901.

Wright, Carrol D.: Manual of Distributive Coöperation. Boston, 1885.

On relation to Social Democracy:

Anseele, E.: “Socialism and Coöperation” in Ensor. Modern Socialism, pp. 284-301.

Gerhard, Adele: Konsumgenossenschaft und Sozialdemokratie. Nürnberg, Wörlein u. Co., 1895.

Kautsky, K.: Konsumverein u. Arbeiterbewegung. (Wiener Arbeiterbibliothek, Heft. 1) Vienna, 1897.

Milhaud, Ed.: La démocratie socialiste allemande. Pp. 442-517.

Reports and publications:

Annual reports of Coöperative Unions, of Coöperative Wholesale, of “Vooruit,” Maison du Peuple, etc.

Annual reports of Registrar of Friendly Societies.

Coöperative News, Manchester.

3. Trade-Unionism.

How far trade-unionism may justifiably be included in a study of social reform movements. — The objects of trade-unionism, and how these objects compare with the primary aims of other social reform movements. — The exact distinction between the “industrial democracy” this movement represents, and “social democracy,” and, in general, the relation between trade-unionism and socialism.

Herkner, Heinrich: Die Arbeiterfrage. Berlin, J. Guttentag, 1902.

Lange, Friedrich A.: Die Arbeiterfrage. Winterthur, 1879.

London, Jack: The Scab. Chicago, Chas. Kerr & Co. (Pocket Lib. of Socialism.)

Nicholson, J. S.: Strikes and Social Problems. (Essay on Labor Combinations and Competition.)

Troeltseh, W., and Hirschfeld, P.: Die deutschen Sozialdemokratischen Gewerkschaften. Berlin, Carl Heymanns Verlag, 1906.

Webb, Sidney and Beatrice: Industrial Democracy. 2 vols.

PART VI.— UTOPIANISM.

  1. The relation of Utopianism to social reform. — The types of Utopian writings. — Some leading modern examples of Utopian plans, and their place in current reform movements. — The question of the utility of Utopianism.

Bellamy, Ed.: Looking Backward. 1870. London, Reeves & Co., 1888.

Equality. New York, Appleton, 1897.

Ellis, Havelock: The Nineteenth Century, an Utopian Retrospect. Boston, Small, Maynard & Co., 1901.

Hertzka, Theodor: Freiland. (Eng. trans.: Freeland. Translated by A. Ransom. N. Y., 1891.)

Hobson, J. A.: Edward Bellamy and the Utopian Romance. (Humanitarian, 1898. Vol. 13.)

Howells, W. D.: A Traveller from Altruria.

Kaufmann, M.: Utopias from Sir Thomas Moore to Karl Marx:. London, Paul, 1879.

Morris, Wm.: News from Nowhere. Longmans, 1896.

Wells, H. G.: A Modern Utopia. Chapman & Hall, 1905.

Source: University of California, Department of Economics. Topics and References for Economics 42: Contemporary Theories of Social Reform. Berkeley: The University Press, 1906. 29 pages.

 

Categories
Cal Tech Columbia Fields M.I.T. Michigan Princeton Stanford

Columbia. Memo advocating the establishment of an Industrial Relations Section. Wolman, 1944

 

 

The following brief memo written by Leo Wolman was commissioned in 1943 by an informal committee to provide a case for establishing an Industrial Relations Institute at Columbia. Besides identifying the existing centers of industrial relations research and teaching in the U.S. and Canada, Wolman also points to the key role played by “C. J. Hicks, the dean of American industrial relations men, adviser to the Rockefellers on policies and problems in this field and, until his retirement some 15 years ago, the director of labor relations for the Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey.”

_____________________

Leo Wolman, Biographical Note

1890, Feb. 24. Born, Baltimore, Md.
1914. Ph.D. in political economy, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.
1916. Published The Boycott in American Trade Unions. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press
1918. Appointed head of section on production statistics, War Industries Board
1919. Attached to American peace mission, Paris, France
1919-1928. Member, faculty, New School for Social Research, New York, N.Y.
1920-1931. Director of research, Amalgamated Clothing Workers Union
1920-1934. Editor, Journal of American Statistics Association
circa 1925. Became freelance researcher for the National Bureau of Economic Research, formally joining the staff in 1931 and later becoming director-at-large for research. NBER publications by Leo Wolman.
1931-1958. Professor of economics, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.
1933. Appointed to staff of National Recovery Administration
1936. Published Ebb and Flow in American Trade Unionism. New York: National Bureau of Economic Research
1961, Oct. 2. Died, New York, N.Y.

Source: Library of Congress. Leo Wolman Papers. Biographical Note.

_____________________

COPY TO DR. FACKENTHAL

October 23, 1944

Dean George B. Pegram,
201 Low Memorial Library.

Dear Dean Pegram:

I enclose a copy of a statement prepared by Professor Wolman on “Industrial Relations Sections or Departments in American Universities”. This was prepared in compliance with the recommendation made by the informal committee that met last year to consider the possibility of our setting up an Industrial Relations Institute at Columbia. I have had some two dozen copies of this statement mimeographed. These will be available for distribution if you plan to call another meeting to explore this matter further.

Faithfully yours,

_____________________

Industrial Relations Sections or Departments

During the past 15 years, a number of American universities, and one Canadian, have organized sections or departments of industrial relations. The earliest of these was the Industrial Relations Section of Princeton University. Since 1930, similar sections have been established at the University of Michigan, Stanford, California Institute of Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Queens University, Canada. These sections are integral parts of the graduate departments of the several institutions. The moving spirit in initiating and finding financial resources for the sections, already established, was C. J. Hicks, the dean of American industrial relations men, adviser to the Rockefellers on policies and problems in this field and, until his retirement some 15 years ago, the director of labor relations for the Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey.

The purposes of this departure were several—to keep members of the faculty and students abreast of the very rapid developments in this important area of private and public policy, to make available to employers, managers, labor, and public officials comparative data as to practices, rules, procedures and policies, to enable students desiring to specialize in labor, labor relations and related subjects to observe and study the practical workings of industrial relations, to push forward the boundaries of knowledge through research, and to establish a closer relation between the scientific activities of universities and the problems of industry, labor, government, and the public. In carrying out these purposes, the various sections have built up libraries of current materials, have published studies dealing with current developments, such as the reemployment of veterans, or of historical importance, such as labor banking in the United States, have trained graduate students, and have held conferences, annual as a rule, for persons working in labor relations.

Depending on their location, age, and industrial environment, the sections now in operation have emphasized different practices. California Technology, operating in a region where large-scale industry is relatively new and personnel men are scarce, has devoted much of its time and resources to bringing to bear the knowledge and experience of other parts of the country on the problems and needs of Southern California. The Massachusetts Institute, operating in an area concerned with unemployment and industrial contraction, has concentrated on research in wages, labor mobility, unemployment, and the like. But all of the sections study, teach, and write about the large issues of private and public policy.

The funds for these enterprises come largely from business, usually in the form of annual contributions pledged for periods of 3 or 5 years. Occasionally a specific piece of research is financed by one of the Foundations but this source of funds has not been counted on for current expenses. Contributions by labor unions have been only a small fraction of total income, though they generally participate in the conferences, and make use of available materials.

There can be little question that the establishment of an industrial relations section at Columbia (associated with the faculties of Political Science and Business) would confer many benefits upon the University. It would make available to students in this field facilities, publications, and contacts with labor and industry which they now lack. It would open up for graduate students new opportunities for employment. It would make available to the university facilities and funds for research. It would create for interested numbers of the faculty, working in the related areas of labor economics, theory, public law, sociology, and labor law, the occasions for using the materials, experience, and problems of industry, labor, and government, not now available to them. It would enable the University to enlarge the range of its public service by serving some of the needs of the enormous and variegated industry, located in this city and the surrounding industrial area of New Jersey, Connecticut, and New York State.

The funds for such an undertaking are probably available in industry. At any rate the other universities had no difficulty raising money. What is needed at Columbia is endorsement of the idea by the faculty, administration, and trustees and the appointment of a small committee instructed to make the plans, raise the funds and find the man capable of directing a section of industrial relations at Columbia.

Leo Wolman

Source: Columbia University Libraries, Manuscript Collections. Columbiana. Department of Economics Collection. Faculty. Box 2, Folder “Department of Economics—Faculty. Beginning Jan. 1, 1944”.

Image Source: Detail from a faculty group picture (early 1930’s). Columbia University Libraries, Manuscript Collections. Columbiana. Department of Economics Collection. Box 9, Folder “Photos”.

Categories
Exam Questions Harvard

Harvard. General Examinations in Micro- and Macroeconomic Theory, Fall 1992

 

 

The following general examinations for microeconomic and macroeconomic theory (Fall 1992) have been transcribed from a collection of general exams at Harvard from the 1990s provided to Economics in the Rear-view Mirror by Abigail Waggoner Wozniak (Harvard economics Ph.D., 2005). Abigail Wozniak was an associate professor of economics at Notre Dame before being appointed a senior research economist and the first director of the Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis’ Opportunity & Inclusive Growth Institute. Economics in the Rear-view Mirror is most grateful for her generosity in sharing this valuable material.

The “Wozniak collection” is over 90 pages long, so it will take some time for all the exams to get transcribed.

Transcriptions are available for:

Spring 1991 General Examinations in Microeconomic Theory and Macroeconomic Theory.

___________________

HARVARD UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS

GENERAL EXAMINATION IN MICROECONOMIC THEORY
FALL 1992

Instructions:

  1. You have FOUR
  2. Answer a total of FOUR questions subject to the following constraint:
    There are four sections (I, II, III, IV). You must answer ONE question from each section.
  3. Please use a separate blue book for each question.
  4. Please put only your EXAM NUMBER on the blue book.

 

PART I

  1. Suppose that the consumption set is X=\left\{ x\in \mathbb{R}_{+}^{2}:{{x}_{1}}+{{x}_{2}}\ge 1 \right\} and the utility function is u(x) = x2.
    1. Represent graphically the consumption set and the indifference map.
    2. State and show that the locally cheaper consumption test for demand fails at the price/wealth combination (p, w) = (1, 1, 1).
    3. Show that market demand is not continuous at the above price/wealth combination. Interpret economically.
  2. An individual has Bernoulli utility indicator u and initial wealth w. Let lottery L offer a payoff of G with probability q and a payoff of B with probability 1 – q.
    1. If the individual owns the lottery, what is the minimum price s/he would sell it for?
    2. If s/he does not own it. What is the maximum price s/he would be willing to pay for it?
    3. Are buying and selling prices equal? Give an economic interpretation for your answer. Find conditions on the parameters of the problem under which buying and selling prices are equal.
    4. Let G = 10, B = 5, w = 0 and u(x) = x0.5. Compute the buying and selling prices for this lottery and this utility indicator.

 

PART II

Consider a market with three identical firms. The three firms set quantities as strategies and do so simultaneously. Each firm has marginal cost c, and market price is

p=1-\sum\limits_{i=1}^{3}{{{q}_{i}}}, where qi is firm i’s quantity.

  1. What are the Cournot equilibrium quantities and prices in this model?
  2. Suppose that firms 1 and 2 consider merging to form a single firm, which would have access to the two firms’ technologies. The merged firm, if it forms, would compete as a Cournot duopolist with firm 3. Assuming that the owners of firms 1 and 2 split the merged firm’s profit equally, would they find such a merger advantageous?
  3. Now suppose that firm 1 sets its quantity (as a Stackelberg leader) first and that firms 2 and 3 then follow and set quantities simultaneously. The model is otherwise the same as before. Suppose that firms 1 and 2 contemplate forming a merged firm that would act as a Stackelberg leader vis a vis firm 3. Will the merged firm’s profit be higher or lower than the sum of firm 1’s and 2’s profits in the pre-merger equilibrium? The question should be answered without making any mathematical computations.

 

PART III

Consider the country of Ec, a country with a small open economy. Ec’s economy produces two outputs, x and y, from two immobile factors, capital (K) and labor (L). The prices of x and y, px and py, are determined on the world market and are not affected by anything that happens in Ec. The aggregate production function in Ec for x is fx(K,L) and that for y is fy(K,L). Both of these functions are homogeneous of degree one in (K,L), continuous, differentiable, and have strictly convex upper contour sets. Let the input price of K  in Ec be r and that for L be w(these are prices in Ec, not world prices).

  1. Display the set of efficient production plans in an Edgeworth Box. Argue that the contract curve must lie either all above, all below, or be coincident with the diagonal in the interior of this box.

Now assume that production of x is more capital intensive than is production of y in the sense that for any given ratio of input prices, r/w, the cost minimizing way to produce any given amount of output involves a strictly larger capital-labor ratio, K/L, in the production of x than in the production of y.

  1. What can you say about the shape of the contract curve now? How do the slopes of the isoquants of the two production processes vary at various points on the contract curve?

Now assume that Ec has a perfectly competitive economy.

  1. Show that there is a unique equilibrium input price ratio r/w.
  2. Prove that if the world price of the capital intensive good (px) rises, then the equilibrium input price ratio, r/w, increases.
  3. Prove that if the endowment of labor in Ec increases, the output of good y increases and output of good x

 

PART IV

  1. How is it that, even in a world of linear technologies, different theories of growth and distribution lead to different theories of value, i.e., different theories of relative prices? Doesn’t this violate the non-substitution theorem, which shows that, for a given cost of capital, the technology which minimizes costs will be chosen irrespective of demand? Is the existence of different theories of value compatible with the idea that competition eliminates any difference between price and cost of production? How does utility maximization enter into neoclassical and non-neoclassical theories of value?
  2. Overheard in the corridors of Littauer:
    “I took the best road home yesterday.”
    “How do you know that?”
    “If there had been a better one I would have taken it.”
    Analyze the above dialogue from the point of view of both partisans and critics of revealed preference theory.

 

Source: Department of Economics, Harvard University. Past General Exams Spring 1991-Spring 1999, pp. 72-77. Copy provided to Economics in the Rear-view Mirror by Abigail Wozniak.

___________________

HARVARD UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS

GENERAL EXAMINATION IN MACROECONOMIC THEORY
FALL 1992

Instructions:

  1. You have FOUR
  2. Answer a total of SIX questions subject to the following constraint:
    There are four sections (I, II, III, IV). You must answer ONE question from each section.
  3. Please use a separate blue book for each question.
  4. Please put only your EXAM NUMBER on the blue book.

 

PART I

  1. Answer the question, “Does money affect output?” Support your answer with both theoretical arguments and empirical evidence. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of this evidence. Finally, include a detailed discussion of one theory that supports your position.
  2. The response among pundits to the recent reduction in German interest rates has been overwhelmingly positive. Evaluate this response in light of the Mundell-Flemming model. How does foreign monetary policy affect domestic output in the model? What other channel might American commentators have in mind. Speculate about the cause of this difference and give an opinion as to who is correct.

 

PART II

Problem 1

Consider the following dynamic version of the Mundell-Fleming model:

{{\dot{e}}}/{e}\;={{i}^{*}}-i

i=\alpha y-\beta m

\dot{y}=\gamma \left( d-y \right)

d=\lambda y-\theta e+g

where

e is the exchange rate (measured so that an appreciation of the domestic currency is an increase in e),
i* is the (exogenous) world interest rate,
i is the domestic interest rate,
y is output,
m is (exogenous) real money balances,
d is demand,
g is a measure of (exogenous) fiscal policy,
and \alpha >0,\,\,\beta >0,\,\,\gamma >0,\,\,0<\lambda <1,\,\,\theta >0.

  1. Give an interpretation of each equation.
  2. Write the model using two variables and two laws of motion. Identify the state (non-jumping) variable and the costate (jumping) variable.
  3. Draw the phase diagram, including the steady-state conditions, the implied[?] dynamics, and the saddle-point stable path.
  4. Describe the effects of a sudden, permanent increase in g. Compare the results to the standard (static) Mundell-Fleming model.
  5. Describe the effects of a sudden, permanent increase in Compare the results to the standard (static) Mundell-Fleming model.

 

Problem 2

Suppose that the representative consumer maximizes the following intertemporal utility function:

{{E}_{t}}\sum\limits_{j=0}^{\infty }{{{\left( 1+\rho  \right)}^{j}}U\left( {{C}_{t+j}},{{G}_{t+j}} \right)}

where C is consumption,

G is (exogenous) government spending,

\rho is the subjective rate of discount,

The consumer has random earnings, and she can borrow and lend at the constant real interest rate r.

  1. What is the consumer’s intertemporal first-order condition? Explain.
  2. In this problem, what variable follows a random walk (that is a martingale)? What variable doesn’t? Explain.
  3. Suppose that government spending follows a predictable pattern: in particular, suppose that (for some political reason) G fluctuates as a sine wave. What is the implied pattern of consumption?
  4. Describe the equity-premium puzzle.
  5. Suppose now that government spending is countercyclical (that is, the government increases G when the economy goes into a recession). How might this model help resolve the equity-premium puzzle? What condition would you need for the utility function U(.)?

 

PART III

  1. What implications for the conduct of monetary policy follow from the fact that many of the familiar variables that economists have urged central banks to adopt as their operating targets—for example, prices, or real interest rates, or measures of money other than the monetary base—are inherently endogenous in the sense that a central bank typically cannot set any of these variables directly via its open market operations? Use a specific model of your choice to illustrate what role a variable like the price level or the real interest rate, or a measure of money other than the monetary base, can plausibly play in the monetary policymaking process even when it is clearly endogenous.
  2. “Whether or not debt-financed government spending ‘crowds out’ private capital formation depends on whether or not the economy’s private resources are already fully employed. At less than full employment, deficit spending will crowd out investment even if it raises output (which it may or may not do). By contrast, the mechanisms that cause this decline in investment at less than full employment are not operative when the economy is fully employed.” Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Explain your reasoning as explicitly as possible.

 

PART IV

  1. Suppose that the government wishes to minimize the present value of costs, zt, which are given for period t by {{z}_{t}}=a\cdot {{\left( {{\pi }_{t}} \right)}^{2}}-b\cdot \left( {{\pi }_{t}}-\pi _{t}^{e} \right)+\left( {c}/{2}\; \right){{\left( {{\pi }_{t}}-\pi _{t}^{e} \right)}^{2}}
    where a, b, c, > 0 are constants, {{\pi }_{t}} is the inflation rate for period t, and \pi _{t}^{e} is the inflation rate that people expected at the start of period t.

    1. If the government takes \pi _{t}^{e} as given, then what value of {{\pi }_{t}} minimizes the cost zt for period t?
    2. If the government acts as in part I., and everyone knows it, then what is the full equilibrium under conditions of rational expectations? Explain the costs that are borne in this equilibrium. How are they affected by an increase in the parameter a, which measures the cost of inflation? Explain the results.
    3. If the government can commit to an inflation rate for period t, then what rate should it commit to? Explain how the costs in this situation compare with those from the equilibrium in part 2.
    4. Can the equilibrium described under 2. still apply if the government takes account of costs in future periods as well as for period t?
  2. Consider the neoclassical growth model for a closed economy of Solow, Cass, Koopmans, et al.
    1. If we think of all countries as closed, does this model imply convergence in the sense that poor countries tend to grow faster per capita than rich countries? Discuss in your answer the distinction between absolute convergence—where the poor grow faster than the rich—and conditional convergence—where a poor country grows faster for given values of some exogenous variables.
    2. How do the rates of convergence in this model relate in a general way to the diminishing returns to capital and to the behavior of the saving rate? How would the rate of convergence be affected by allowing for some capital mobility across countries?
    3. If poor countries tend to grow faster per capita than rich countries does it follow that the dispersion of per capita incomes across countries will tend to narrow over time?

 

Source: Department of Economics, Harvard University. Past General Exams Spring 1991-Spring 1999, pp. 78-83. Copy provided to Economics in the Rear-view Mirror by Abigail Wozniak.

Image Source: Harvard Class Album 1946.

Categories
Chicago Economic History Suggested Reading Syllabus

Chicago. Reading list for Development of Monetary and Financial Institutions. Hamilton, 1960

 

 

The papers of the economic historian Earl J. Hamilton are a grab-bag of archival treasure, poorly sorted and demanding from the historian an unlimited faith in the goodness of the gods of serendipity. This post is a course reading list that would have rested safe in the obscurity of Hamilton’s papers, but for a chance encounter. I have taken the liberty of assuming the course title for Economics 334 at the University of Chicago in 1959-60 would match that of 1956-57. The course reading list is a nice example of the intersection of economic history and the history of economics.  

_____________________

Economics 334: Mr. Hamilton

Assignments to be read before May 20, 1960

  1. Luigi Einaudi, “The Medieval Practice of Managed Currency,” in A.D. Gayer (Ed.), The Lessons of Monetary Experience, pp. 259-268. HG 255.L63
  2. W. C. Mitchell, “The Role of Money in Economic Theory,” in The Backward Art of Spending Money, pp. 149-176. HB 33.M 68.
  3. Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations, “Digression concerning Banks of Deposit, particularly concerning that of Amsterdam,” in Book IV, Chapter III, Part I. HB 161. S 65.
  4. Earl J. Hamilton, American Treasure and the Price Revolution in Spain, Chapter XIII. H31.H33, v. 43
  5. Earl J. Hamilton, “Prices and Wages at Paris under John Law’s System,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. LI, (1936-1937), pp. 42-70. HB1.Q3
  6. Jacob Viner, Studies in the Theory of International Trade, Chapters III-V HF1007.V75
  7. N. J. Silberling, “Financial and Monetary Policy of Great Britain during the Napoleonic Wars,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. XXXVIII (1923-24), pp. 214-33, 397-439. HB1.Q3, v.38
  8. Lloyd W. Mints, History of Banking Theory, Chapter IV. HG1586.M6
  9. Walter Bagehot, Lombard Street. HG3000.L82B3
  10. R. S. Sayers, “The Question of the Standard in the Eighteen-Fifties,” Economic History (a supplement to the Economic Journal), Vol. II, pp. 575-601. HB1.E31
  11. Rufus S. Tucker, “The Myth of 1849,” in C.O Hardy, Is There Enough Gold? Appendix A, pp. 177-199. HG289.H28.
  12. J. H. Clapham, The Bank of England, Vol. II, Chapters VI-VIII and Epilogue. HG2996.C6
  13. Knut Wicksell, “The Influence of the Rate of Interest on Prices,” Economic Journal, Vol. XVII (1907), pp. 213-220. YW16 (reprint)
  14. O. M. W. Sprague, Crises under the National Banking System, Washington, 1910, pp. 1-107. HB3743.S7
  15. John Stuart Mill, Principles of Political Economy, Book III, Chapter XII. HB171.M635, M636, M644, M653.
  16. Charles F. Dunbar (Revised and edited by O. M. W. Sprague), The Theory and History of Banking, Chapters VIII (“The English Banking System”), IX (“The French Banking System”), X (“The German Banking System”), XI (“The National Banks of the United States”). HG1586.D9
  17. J. M. Keynes, A Tract on Monetary Reform, Chapters I-II, IV-V. HG221.K4
  18. J. M. Keynes, A Treatise on Money, Vol. II, Chapter 30. HG221.K422.

There will be an hour examination on April 29, 1960 covering 1-18 and the lectures.

  1. Alfred Marshall, Money, Credit, and Commerce, Books II, IV, and Appendix A. HG221.M35
  2. J. M. Keynes, Essays in Persuasion, Part II, Chaps. 1 and 3; Part III, Chapter 5; Part V, Chapter 2. In the London, 1933 edition these chapters cover pages 77-79, 105-17, 244-70, 358-73. HC57.K471.
  3. D. H. Robertson, Essays in Monetary Theory, Chaps. I and XII. HB 171.R544.
  4. Fred H. Klopstock, “Monetary Reform in Western Germany,” Journal of Political Economy, August, 1949. HB1.J7, v. 57.
  5. J. M. Keynes, A Treatise on Money, Vol. II, Chaps. 35 and 37. HG221.K422
  6. Earl J. Hamilton, “Prices and Progress,” Journal of Economic History, XII (1952), pp. 325-49.
  7. J. M. Keynes, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, Chapter 23. HB171.K46
  8. Official Papers by Alfred Marshall, pp. 3-16. HG171.M318.
  9. The Federal Reserve System: Purposes and Functions
  10. Rondo E. Cameron, “The Credit Mobilier and the Economic Development of Europe,” Journal of Political Economy, LXI (1953), pp. 461-88.

There will be a three-hour final examination (9:00-12:00) on May 27, 1960 covering all assignments and lectures.

Source: Duke University. David M. Rubenstein Rare Book and Manuscript Library. Earl J. Hamilton Papers. Box 2. Folder “Academic and Personal Correspondence 1950s-1970s; 1990; and n.d.”

Image Source:  University of Chicago Photographic Archive, apf1-02446, Special Collections Research Center, University of Chicago Library.

Categories
Economic History Exam Questions Harvard Suggested Reading Syllabus

Harvard. European Economic History from the Industrial Revolution. Gay, 1934

 

 

A brief biography of Harvard economic historian and first Dean of the Harvard Business School, Edwin Francis Gay (1867-1946) is found in the earlier post for his course “Recent Economic History” that was also taught at Harvard in the 1934-35 academic year. Below we have the course announcement, enrollment figures, reading list, and final exam for the course on European Economic History from the Industrial Revolution.

______________________________

Course Announcement

Economics 2a 1hf. European Economic History from the Industrial Revolution

Half-course (first half-year). Tu., Th., and (at the pleasure of the instructor) Sat., at 9. Professor Gay.

Source: Announcement of the Courses of Instruction Offered by the Faculty of Arts and Sciences During 1934-35, second edition. Published in Official Register of Harvard University, Vol. XXXI, No. 38 (September 20, 1934), p. 125.

______________________________

Course Enrollment

[Economics] 2a 1hf. Professor Gay.—European Economic History since the Industrial Revolution.

Total 50:  3 Graduates, 21 Seniors, 17 Juniors, 8 Sophomores, 1 Other.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College, 1934-35, p. 81.

______________________________

Assigned and Suggested Readings

ECONOMICS 2a
[pencil insert: 1934-5]

European Economic History from the Industrial Revolution

Hour Test on November 13 [Pencil insert: Extended to Nov. 15] will cover Groups I and II.

I. SOCIAL THOUGHT AND PROGRESS

A. V. Dicey—Law and Public Opinion in England (1908). Lectures 4-7 (Pages 62-258)

J. M. Keynes—The End of Laissez Faire. (1926)

G. Wallas—Life of Francis Place (1918). Chapters 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8 (pages 1-92, 157-240)

II. TRANSPORTATION

E. A. Pratt—A History of Inland Transport and Communication in England (1912). Chapters 8-22 (pages 51-311)

J. H. Clapham—Economic Development of France and Germany (1921). Chapters 5, 7, 12 (Pages 104-120, 140-157, 339-375)

III. AGRICULTURE

Lord Ernle—English Farming, Past and Present (3d edition, 1922). Chapters 17, 18

J. H. Clapham—Economic Development of France and Germany (1921). Chapter 9 (pages 195-231)

C. L. Christensen—Agricultural Cooperation in Denmark. Pages 9-54, 81-87

IV. TARIFF POLICY

P. Ashley—Modern Tariff History (1920). Part 1, Part 3 (pages 3-128, 269-355)

J. Morley—Life of Richard Cobden (1881). Chapters 6, 7, 10, 11, 13, 16 (pages 140-172, 209-247, 290-307, 355-389)

V. BANKING

A. Andreades—History of the Bank of England (1909). Vol. 1, part 4; Vol. 2, Introductory chapter and Part 1 (pages 161-294)

H. Feis—Europe The World’s Banker, 1870-1914 (1930). Part I; Part II; Part III, Chapters 12, 13 (pages 3-190-258-313)

VI. READING PERIOD ASSIGNMENT

Choose ONE of the following groups:

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT

P. Mantoux—The Industrial Revolution in the Eighteenth Century (English translation, 1928)

Part I, Chapter 2
Part II, Chapters 1, 2, 3
Part III, Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4
(pages 93-139-193-317, 349-489)

J. H. Clapham—Economic Development of France and German. Chapters 3, 4 (pages 53-103)

LABOR

S. & B. Webb—History of Trade Unionism (1920 edition). Chapters (in part) 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, 11 (pages 64-112, 153-179, 180-204, 249-298, 358-421, 472-546, 594-611, 634-676, 677-704)

Cambridge Modern History—Volume 12—Chapter 23—Social Movements (by Webb) (pages 730-765

BRITISH INDUSTRY AND CAPITAL

A. Siegfried—England’s Crisis (1933 edition)

L. H. Jenks—The Migration of British Capital to 1875 (1927). Chapters 1, 5, 7, 11. Pages 1-24, 126-157, 193-232, 326-336)

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING—NOT ASSIGNED

A. Birnie—Economic History of Europe 1760-1930 (1930)

C. Day—Economic Development in Modern Europe (1933)

J. H. Clapham—An Economic History of Modern Britain—2 vol. 1926-32 [3 vols. 1926-1938]

L. Domeratzsky—The International Cartel Movement (1928)

R. J. S. Hoffman—Great Britain and the German Trade Rivalry 1875-1914 (1933)

P Fitzgerald—Industrial Combination in England (1927)

L. C .A. Knowles—The Economic Development of the British Overseas Empire, 2 vols. (1924-1930)

F. L. Nussbaum—A History of the Economic Institutions of Modern Europe (1933)

H. M. Robertson—Aspects of the Rise of Economic Individualism (1933)

L. C .A. Knowles—Economic Development in the Nineteenth Century (1932)

 

Source: Harvard University Archives. Syllabi, course outlines and reading lists in economics, 1895-2003. Box 2, Folder “Economics 1934-1935”

______________________________

1934-35
HARVARD UNIVERSITY

ECONOMICS 2a1
[Final. 1935.]

Comment briefly on THREE of the statements in part I, and discuss more fully TWO of the questions in Part II.

Part I

  1. “During the period 1785-1802 there was an increase rather than a decrease of the yeomen proper in England.”
    “The Industrial Revolution was responsible for a decrease in the number of yeomen.”
  2. “The solution for the problem of agricultural distress is to be found, as the example of Denmark clearly shows, not in protective tariffs but in coöperative organization.”
  3. “The Bank was right in 1811 in rejecting the main recommendations of the Bullion Committee and in thereby refusing to follow the counsels of doctrinaires.”
  4. “The Trade Union of today is a direct descendant of the old Gild.”
  5. “The fact that the landlords supported the Factory Acts and that the manufacturers agitated for the repeal of the Corn Laws indicates that both of these powerful antagonists desired the welfare of the working class and that this class, as yet unenfranchised, wielded great political power.”

Part II

  1. “It was the increase of population which rendered necessary the Industrial Revolution.” (Lewinski.)
    “The cotton industry by its demand for the labor of women and children was chiefly responsible for the great increase of population in the towns during the generation and a half preceding the Reform Bill.”
    Comment and give your own view concerning the movement of population in Great Britain and its relation to the Industrial Revolution.
  2. “The community as a whole benefits more by falling than by rising prices.” (Layton.)
    Is this statement supported by the experience of England in the nineteenth century?
  3. Show the chief difference (giving reasons therefor) between France and Germany in railroad development and control.
  4. “The manifold connections and activities of British commerce and finance achieved for Great Britain in their freedom a vigorous expansion.” (Feis) Explain and exemplify.
  5. Summarize concisely:
    1. Bullion Report.
    2. New Unionism.
    3. Cobden Chevalier Treaty.
    4. Méline Tariff.
    5. Bank Act of 1844.
    6. Taff Vale Case.

Source: Harvard University Archives. Mid-year examinations, 1852-1943. Box 12. Volume: Examination Papers. Mid-Years, 1934-35.

Image Source: Edwin Francis Gay in Harvard Class Album 1934.

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Exam Questions Harvard

Harvard. Final examination for graduate mathematical economics. Goodwin, 1950-51

 

 

 

The reading list for the one-term course Economics 204b. Mathematical Economics, taught by Richard Goodwin during the first term of 1948-49 was posted earlier.

This same course number, Economics 204b, was later assigned to a Goodwin’s seminar in mathematical economics in 1950-51 (that covered “General interdependence systems: in particular, Leontief linear systems”), so we can assume that much of the reading list for his course Economics 204a in 1950-51  would have been very similar to the earlier list linked above. In any event, here are the exam questions for the 1950-51 course.

_____________________

Course Description

Economics 204a. Mathematical Economics

Half-course (fall term). Tu., Th., 2:30-4. Assistant Professor Goodwin.

Micro-and macro-dynamical economic systems.

Prerequisites: one course in economics and one in college mathematics. Properly qualified undergraduates will be admitted to the course.

Source: Final Announcement of the Courses of Instruction Offered by the Faculty of Arts and Sciences During 1950-51. Published in Official Register of Harvard University, Vol. XLVII, No. 23 (September, 1950), p. 83.

_____________________

HARVARD UNIVERSITY
ECONOMICS 204a
Final. January, 1951

Please use right hand side of page only, leaving the left hand side for scratchwork.

I
Required hour question.

  1. Write an essay on the role of stability in economic science. Include some discussion of various definitions of it, how to measure it, and its use by Walras and by Marshall. Would you be inclined to accept as valid the following type of proposition: we may assume that all or most markets have stable equilibria, for “the plausibility of such a stability hypothesis is suggested by the consideration that positions of unstable equilibrium, even if they exist, are transient, nonpersistent states, and hence on the crudest probability calculation would be observed less frequently than stable states” (Samuelson)?

II
Take any TWO questions, allowing about 40 minutes for each.

  1. State concisely the economic assumptions and derivation of any one macrodynamic model of an inventory cycle. In terms of the model discuss the factors governing the period of its cycle.
  2. Develop briefly a simply macrodynamic model based on ‘fixed’ capital theory. Indicate the important non-linearities and give a graphical discussion of the nature of the solutions and their limit cycle. What are the principal characteristics of the system’s behavior?
  3. Two different economic situations are described by the somewhat similar equations:
    1. \ddot{x}+.12\dot{x}+2.3x=10;
    2. x\left( t+2 \right)+.12x\left( t+1 \right)+2.3x\left( t \right)=10.
      Compare and contrast the behavior implied in the two cases.

 

III
Take any TWO questions, allowing about 20 minutes for each.

  1. If the multiplier mechanism is represented by
    {1}/{v}\;\dot{y}+\left( 1-\alpha \right)y=i\left( t \right)+H ,
    and if
    i\left( t \right)=\kappa \dot{y}+I\cos \omega t,
    Obtain the complete solution for y.
  2. Given a Marshallian type market, specified by
    \begin{array}{l}{{p}_{d}}={{p}_{d}}\left( q \right),\\{{p}_{s}}={{p}_{s}}\left( q \right),\\\text{and}\\\dot{q}=f\left( {{p}_{d}}-{{p}_{x}} \right),\end{array}

    1. State the meaning and use of its phase line, \psi \left( q \right);
    2. Derive the relationship between the slope of \psi \left( q \right) and the slopes of the supply, the demand, and the reaction curves;
    3. Show what conditions on the slopes of the other curves are implied by a stable equilibrium point.
    4. If all curves are linear for small variations, show how the time constant, \tau , depends on the slopes of the supply, the demand, and the reaction curves.
    5. With the help of graphs, discuss the various possible behavior types of a ‘cob-web’ market with general, non-linear supply and demand curves. Explain briefly in words the meaning of your results.

Source:  Harvard University Archives. Final examinations, 1853-2001. Box 17, Bound volume: Papers Printed for Final Examinations. History, History of Religions, …, Economics, …, Military Science, Naval Science. January, 1951.

Image: Harvard Class Album 1951.