In the beginning was the pitch. On June 7, 1880 the Board of Trustees of Columbia College passed resolutions to establish the School of Political Science (within which the field of political economy was embedded). The School of Political Science would open for students beginning with the 1880-1881 academic year. The pitch and plan for a “School of Preparation for the Civil Service” of February 1880 by the School of Political Science founder John W. Burgess is transcribed below.
From this document is clear that in Burgess’ initial vision the principal mission of the future Faculty of Political Science would be to “prepare young men for the duties of public life”. So one can think of the ancestor faculty from which today’s department of economics at Columbia University descended was actually a School of Public Policy in which History, Law, and Philosophy constituted the supporting disciplinary pillars.
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OUTLINE OF A PLAN
FOR THE
INSTRUCTION of GRADUATE CLASSES
FOR THE
EXTENSION OF THE ELECTIVE SYSTEM OF STUDY
IN THE
UNDERGRADUATE DEPARTMENT.
AND FOR THE CREATION OF
A SCHOOL OF PREPARATION
FOR THE
CIVIL SERVICE
Macgowan & Slipper, Printers, 30 Beekman Street, New York.
__________________________
COLUMBIA COLLEGE
GRADUATE INSTRUCTION, AND THE EXTENSION OF
THE ELECTIVE SYSTEM
To the Committee of Trustees of Columbia College on the Course and Statutes:
GENTLEMEN: The circumstances of the College are at length such as to make it possible to provide for giving instruction of a more advanced character than is required in the undergraduate classes. This is an object which many members of the Board of Trustees have long esteemed to be desirable, and of which the accomplishment has been regarded as only a question of time. Educational institutions of a nominally superior order are numerous enough in our country, but those which possess any just claim to be considered fountains of really high learning are as yet comparatively few. The country has, nevertheless, need of such institutions, as is made evident by the yearly increasing numbers of American youth who resort for the completion of their education to the Universities of the Old World. Such institutions will accordingly be erected, but it is hardly to be expected that they will be built from the ground up, on new and independent foundations. They will rather be developed out of existing institutions already well established, well endowed, and possessed of instrumentalities in actual operation, adequate, with some modification of the mode of their application, to accomplish the new and higher work proposed, without interfering with their present usefulness, or materially increasing the burden of their maintenance. The number of educational institutions in our country capable of such development is not at present great, nor is it important that it should be. It is far from being desirable, in the interest of the higher education itself, that universities (employing the term in the commonly accepted sense) should be numerous relatively either to the population or to the schools of lower grade. It is, on the other hand, vastly preferable that they should be few, strong, and largely attended, rather than many and, as an almost necessary consequence, ill-supported and feeble.
Circumstances already very distinctly indicate certain of the educational institutions of our country as destined inevitably to occupy this higher grade. There are others, doubtless, which will yet be added to the number, whose destiny is at present less clearly manifest; but as to these few there can be no possibility of mistake. Among the conditions which will aid in determining the future of these institutions is, of course, the present possession of adequate financial strength; but another, which is of nearly equal importance, is geographical position. Many reasons conspire to make the city of New York the fittest place on this continent for the growth of an educational institution of the highest order. It is not merely because of its superior population or its superior wealth that it possesses this advantage. It is because here are gradually concentrating themselves, in the most marked degree, all the most important accessories to mental cultures, all that most strikingly illustrates the triumphs of the human intellect in science, in letters, and in the arts of civilized life. And it is because in the ebb and flow of the vast human ocean which overspreads the continent, this city is the point toward which the currents of the population are continually tending, or from which they are retiring; and this is therefore, the point in which knowledge may be most conveniently sought, and from which it may be most easily diffused.
Columbia College occupies this very favorable position. It has already an honorable and well-earned reputation. It has around it a large body of Alumni interested in its prosperity, zealous for the promotion of its usefulness, and occupying, many of them, positions of influence in the social and political world. It has gathered together the most important of the instrumentalities necessary to the efficiency of instruction, or to the aid of literary research or scientific investigation. It has built up professional schools which, in there several specialties, take easily precedence of all others of their class in the United States. Its several faculties embrace men accomplished as scholars, thoroughly versed in the various departments of science, and profoundly learned in history, philosophy, and the law. What it needs to give it the character of a true university is to open its doors to aspirants for knowledge, who are seeking, not, as at present in the undergraduate department, knowledge in its mere rudiments, nor, as in the professional schools, knowledge for its immediately useful applications, but knowledge in the largest sense—knowledge pursued for its own sake, or to qualify the learner to contribute on his own part to the intellectual progress of the race.
To aspirants of this class opportunities may be offered for instruction in a great variety of subjects, without any addition, not demanded in the interest of the undergraduate department alone, to the present educational staff. To this end it is only necessary to adopt the simple expedient of distribution the hours of instruction over a larger portion of the day than they now occupy. According to the existing arrangement, all instruction is given within the limited space of three hours daily, and these are filled up with the exercises of the undergraduate classes. It is true, that within this limit it frequently happens that officers have unemployed hours; but these are not so distributed as to permit the arrangement of a working system of graduate instruction. To make such a system practicable, it is necessary that the subjects which a student may desire to combine should be taught at different hours. And this condition cannot be fulfilled without scattering the exercises over the greater part of the day. This is what is done in the School of Mines, in which all the hours from nine or ten o’clock in the morning till four or five in the afternoon are made available in one form or another for purposes of instruction.
But this expedient, while it provides that instruction shall be going on at every hour in one department or another, involves to the individual student the consequence that, between the hours in which he is engaged in class, there will occur other hours when he is without any scholastic exercise to employ him. During these hours it is proper that he should be occupied in study; and so he might be presumed to be were his residence in every instance within easy distance from the College. The institutions which provide lodgings for their students upon their own grounds find no difficulty in this matter. At Harvard University, for instance, exercises occur at every hour from nine till five; but the students, when not under instruction, are expected to study in their rooms. Since students with us have no private rooms, and are, in general, too distant from their homes to study there, the distribution of time proposed would hardly be judicious or just unless provision should be at the same time made for usefully employing the hours intervening between class duties. In the School of Mines abundant occupation for these hours is found in drawing, laboratory work, or practice in the use of tools and instruments. For the undergraduates it would be necessary to provide study rooms, to be used by students in common, by setting apart for the purpose some portion of the buildings not as yet otherwise assigned. The upper floor of the recently-erected building is entirely suitable to this object, and is quite sufficient. It is not needed for any present college uses, nor for any likely to arise so long as the old building continues to stand; and it is very evident that that building cannot be demolished until another shall have been erected somewhere else. Its demolition would necessitate the provision of other accommodations for the great variety of operations now going on in it; and though such might be found for the physical department in the new building, yet, for the Herbarium, for the classes in French, German, Mechanical Engineering, and Descriptive Geometry, for the operations of air and water analysis, for the library overflow, the gymnasium, etc., etc., no adequate space could be found there disposable. The future wants of the institution, for which the remaining floor of the new building is presumably held in reserve, will, therefore, undoubtedly be provided for in some manner not likely to interfere with any present disposition which may be made of that floor; and hence the devotion of that now unoccupied space to the uses of a study room cannot on that account be regarded as objectionable.
Supposing this arrangement to be adopted, it is easy, without adding to the number of our instructors, to plan a system of instruction for graduates which shall embrace reading or lecture courses in the Classics, English Literature, Anglo-Saxon, Philosophy and the History of Philosophy, Physiological Psychology, Political Science, Public Economy, History, the Higher Mathematics, Mechanics, Astronomy, Physics, Chemistry, Geology, and certain branches of Natural History, to occupy, on an average, not less than two hours weekly each. There can be no doubt that, when this system shall have been fully inaugurated, the number of students attracted by it will so far add to the revenues of the College as to justify the appointment of additional instructors on subjects not included in the above enumeration, such as Foreign Literature, Hebrew, Oriental Literature, Comparative Philology, Ethnology, Archæology, Natural History in its various ramifications, Animal and Vegetable Physiology, Methods of Research in Physics and Chemistry, Physical Astronomy, Architecture and the Fine Arts, and any others which may be necessary to make the institution a school of universal knowledge.
For the purpose of illustrating the practicability of carrying the proposed plan into effect without interfering with the undergraduate course already in operation, an ideal scheme of attendance is annexed to this communication, showing a distribution of the subjects of instruction to the hours of each day throughout the week, by means of which the convenience of instructors, as well of students, both graduate and undergraduate, may be satisfactorily provided for.
ENLARGEMENT OF THE ELECTIVE SYSTEM FOR UNDERGRADUATES.
An advantage incidental to the distribution of the hours of instruction over the entire day will be the opportunity it affords for giving to the students of the undergraduate department a greater liberty of option than they at present enjoy in the selection of their studies. It appears to the undersigned that the collegiate course for the student of our day cannot properly he made so severely a course of mere mental discipline as it was judicious to make it in the last century, or even during the earlier years of the present. The average age of our graduates is that of fully grown men. The age of the applicant for admission, a century ago, ranged from ten to fourteen years. The four years of college life embraced at that time the period of gradual mental as well as of physical development and growth; and it was eminently proper that the studies enforced upon the learner should be adapted rather to train the faculties than to inform the mind. At present this period is spent mainly in the preparatory schools, and it is in them that this work of mental gymnastics should be chiefly carried on. The end of college instruction is not merely to discipline, but also to inform; and since men differ no less in their mental than in their personal characteristics, it follows that different individuals do not acquire the same kind of knowledge with equal facility, nor are they equally profited by it. This provision of nature is one of great and beneficial importance to the progress of the race; for inasmuch as it is impossible that any one shall be proficient in all departments of human knowledge, the fact that each seeks spontaneously some special field insures the certainty that every such field will be energetically explored.
It seems, therefore, to be proper that at that period of comparative maturity at which young men begin to be conscious of their fitness for some particular pursuit or vocation, and desirous to acquire the knowledge most likely to be advantageous in following it, they should be allowed, to a pretty large extent, to select their subjects of study from among those which are in harmony with their tastes and aspirations. That public opinion in the social and the educational world recognizes this propriety is manifest in the flourishing condition of the institutions in which the elective system of study has been largely developed, and in the rapidity with which those institutions have grown in popular favor. In our own College the introduction of this system on an extended scale has been hitherto impracticable, for the same reasons which have made it impossible to provide for the instruction of graduates; yet the results of the limited trial of it which we have made have been altogether favorable.
The introduction of the elective system, however, in its largest latitude, does not by any means imply the necessity of discarding the system which at present exists. If there should be any who prefer still to cling to traditions, they may enter themselves from the beginning for the course of study prescribed for the degree of Bachelor of Arts in our statutes as they stand, and follow the same undeviatingly to the end. Degrees in Arts may be reserved to be conferred on such only; while those who prefer the optional course may be graduated as Bachelors of Letters or Bachelors of Science, according to the character of the studies which they chiefly pursue.
The adoption of a scheme of study largely elective would not necessarily require an increase in the number of instructors employed. As it is true, however, that, in such a system, the modern languages ought pretty fully to enter, it would be advisable to add to our present corps, a tutor in Italian and a tutor in Spanish. As to the French, arrangements could probably be made by which the instructor in that language in the School of Mines would teach also in the College; and for the German, we have already a professor who has hitherto given instruction in his proper department only under circumstances of serious embarrassment, and who would find the proposed change advantageous to his usefulness.
An ideal scheme of attendance accompanying this communication shows in what manner the exercises may be arranged so that students pursuing elective courses may attend along with candidates for degrees in Arts, so far as the subjects of study of these two classes of students are identical. Another appended paper shows the variety of particular courses of study which may be offered in the several departments indicated only by general titles in the scheme of attendance. In this latter paper are embraced some titles which do not fall within the special province of any of our present instructors; such as Hebrew Sanskrit, the Evidences of Religion, Anatomy, Physiology, and the principles of the Common Law.
In regard to the Evidences, there is no doubt that, under the voluntary system, the Trustees would think it advisable to reestablish the course; since with the abandonment of the principle of compulsion would disappear the reasons which have led to its discontinuance heretofore.
As to Anatomy and Physiology, arrangements could be made not involving any considerable expense, with Professors of the Medical School, to give annual courses adapted to the wants of the general learner, of great interest and value, though not extending to more than ten or twelve lectures each. A brief course of similar extent, upon the principles of the Common Law, could be given by our principal Law professor, embracing information highly important to educated men, but not now easily obtain able except in professional schools. Such a course used to be given to the Seniors at Yale College during the lifetime of the late Judge Daggett, which was always fully attended, though attendance was merely voluntary.
As to Sanskrit, a language occupying every year more and more the attention of scholars everywhere, there would be very little difficulty. Some of our own recent Alumni have already honorably distinguished themselves in this interesting study. One of our Fellows in Letters of the Class of 1878, now pursuing his studies at the University at Leipzig, had made himself by his own private and independent efforts a proficient in Sanskrit literature before his graduation, and since entering upon the course at Leipzig has received signal marks of approval and consideration from the professor in that department there. Another, of the Class of 1875, after completing his course of study abroad, has returned to this country bringing flattering testimonials to his attainments in general scholarship, and especially as to his proficiency in this particular branch. This young man, or some other similarly qualified, could be appointed to fill one of the new tutorships which it will presently become necessary to create in Greek or Latin in our College, and could be engaged at the same time to take charge of the instruction of any class which might be formed in Sanskrit. Considering that the condition of things is such in College at present as to make it impossible any longer to defer increasing the number of subordinate officers, it may be regarded as a happy concurrence of circumstances which enables us by the same act to provide a competent instructor in a subject in which as yet in this country the proficients are few.
All the subjects, however, for which instructors cannot be found among the members of our present Faculties, unless the modern languages be excepted, may be omitted, if necessary, from our scheme, till the success of the measure shall permit them to be provided for without adding to the burdens of the treasury.
PREPARATION OF YOUNG MEN FOR THE CIVIL SERVICE.
Since the passage of the resolution in regard to graduate classes, now before the Committee, a plan has been proposed for establishing, in addition to the special schools connected with the College already in existence, a new one of an original character, designed to meet what is believed to be a want of the present time, by preparing young men to engage intelligently in the service of the government. Though as yet in our country the civil and consular service has not been securely placed beyond the control of influences purely political, the popular sentiment manifests itself more and more strongly every year in favor of such a separation, and enough has been already accomplished to make it evident that, at least in the lower ranks of this service, proper qualification and the personal merit of the aspirant are likely hereafter to carry with them more weight in the competition for office than political favor. Even, moreover, should the so-called Civil Service reform receive a check, the course of instruction which it is proposed to give in the new school would still prove attractive to young men who desire to fit themselves to deal with questions of public interest, whether in professional life, or as politicians, or as managers of public journals. A school of a character similar to this has for several years been in successful operation in Paris, and counts among its teachers some of the most eminent publicists of France.
The proposition referred to proceeds from our Professor of Political Science, and is set forth in its details in a letter addressed by him to the undersigned, which is given below. As the proposed school involves the question of both graduate and undergraduate instruction, its consideration falls within the scope of the resolution referred to the Committee. An ideal scheme of attendance hereto appended shows in what manner the exercises of this course may be combined with those of the graduate and undergraduate classes, so that each may be accessible, if desired, to the students of the others.
In order that this project may be carried into effect, it would be necessary to appoint, within the next two years, two additional instructors, at salaries of $2,500 each. Within the same period the number of students entering for the course might reasonably be computed at not less than fifty, and would probably be greater. It would conduce very much to the success of the undertaking that the Law School should be removed from its present situation and united with the other departments upon the same ground, though that need not be regarded as in dispensable.
Following the letter of Professor Burgess below, will be found, marked A, a succinct résumé of the essential features of the plan herein recommended, and also of that of the proposed School of Preparation for the Civil Service, marked B. Also, marked C, an estimate of the probable effect upon revenue and expenditure of the adoption of these projects; and finally, an enumeration, marked D, of the subjects of the several courses of instruction which the proposed plan will embrace. The hypothetical schemes of daily attendance referred to above are presented separately.
All which is respectfully submitted,
F. A. P. BARNARD, President.
COLUMBIA COLLEGE, February 25, 1880.
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LETTER OF PROFESSOR BURGESS TO THE PRESIDENT.
323 West 57th St., Feb. 20th, 1880.
My Dear Dr. Barnard:
It seems to me evident that the time has now fairly arrived, both in the history of this nation and of this University, when a decisive step forward in the development of the political sciences is positively and specially demanded.
In the history of the nation it is so, not only because the Republic has now reached those mighty proportions demanding the finest training, as well as the finest talent, for the successful management of its affairs, but because the Government itself has recognized this fact, and in its Civil Service reforms, which, I think, are now fairly planted and destined, under the proper influences, to a noble growth, has opened the way for an honorable career to the young men of the nation in the governmental service, which may be successfully pursued by the best intelligence, skill, and fidelity, offering itself without any reference to political influence or patronage.
In the history of the University it is so, not only because it is the bounden duty of a university, worthy the name, to teach all that has been gathered by the world’s experience in this as well as all other departments of superior knowledge, and to add continually thereto, but because, also, of its metropolitan situation, which fits it better than any other in the nation, both to place its students in immediate connection with the Civil Service examinations, so far as they now exist, and to exert its influence with greatest efficacy for the extension of the same throughout every branch of that service, as the indispensable condition of appointment to governmental office, and because I think I may assert that the foundation is now already fairly laid in our University for the development which I now propose.
The elements of the plan which I would suggest are, in outline, as follows:
I
The course of study shall extend over a period of three years, and comprise the following subjects:
FIRST YEAR.— The History of Philosophy; The History of the Literature of the Political Sciences; The General Constitutional History of Europe; The Special Constitutional History of England and of the United States.
SECOND YEAR.— The Roman Law—the general principles of the jurisprudence of the existing codes derived therefrom; The Comparative Constitutional Law of the Principal European States and of the United States; The Comparative Constitutional Law of the Different Commonwealths of the American Union.
THIRD YEAR.— History of Diplomacy; International Law; Systems of Administration, both of the Nation and the Commonwealths in the American Union; The Comparison of the Administrative System of the United States with those of the principal European States; Political Economy in all its Branches, and Statistics.
II.
The requirements for admission to this department shall be:
FIRST.— The completion, successfully, of the Junior Year in any regular college of the United States; or—
SECOND.—The passing of a successful examination upon all the studies of the first three years of the Academic Department of this University; and—
THIRDLY. — Including therein, in either case, a fair reading knowledge of the French and German languages.
III.
The degree conferred, upon the completion of all the courses and after successful examination therein, shall be that of A.M., Ph.D.; and if, in addition to the courses in this department, the student shall have received the degree of LL.B., either from the Law School of this University or from any other School of Municipal Law in good standing, the degree shall be that of D.C.L. For the students of a single year’s standing the degree will be that of A.B.
IV.
The fee for instruction in this department shall be the same in amount as is paid by undergraduates. But members of the Senior Class in the Academic Department of the University may attend the courses of the first year, and members of the School of Law may attend any or all of the courses free.
Finally, my dear Doctor, I would add that, in my opinion, this plan can be now realized without much, if any, additional expense to the Treasury of the University. When in complete running order it will require the appointment of two assistants to the Professor now in charge of the department — one for the courses in Roman Law and its branches, the other for the courses upon the administrative systems of Europe and the United States. I am confident that two fit persons, both graduates of the Law Department of this University, and now about finishing their courses of special study upon these topics in European universities — the one at Berlin and the other at the Ecole Libre des Sciences Politiques in Paris–can be secured at salaries of $2,500 each per annum; and if one of these should be appointed, his office and salary to take effect from October 1st, 1881, and the other from October 1st, 1882, I fully believe that the receipts from the fees of students in the department would be sufficient to cover one, if not both, of these salaries, and in five years from this time would be a source of revenue to the Treasury. I am informed that in the city of New York alone fifty or more vacancies occur every year in the Civil Service of the United States, from death, resignation, or inability to serve; and that, through the present method of Civil Service examinations, fifty or more appointments are therefore annually made to offices having salaries of from $1,200 to $5,000; and I feel assured that the institution of learning which shall first seize the opportunity for establishing among its departments a school of training for the Civil Service of the National Government, will not only increase its own prestige and be a national benefactor, but will also reap no mean financial reward therefrom.
Trusting that these suggestions may meet your favor and support,
I am, as ever, your most obedient servant,
JOHN W. BURGESS.
President F. A. P. BARNARD, LL.D.
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(A.)
PLAN FOR THE INSTRUCTION OF GRADUATE CLASSES, AND FOR THE EXTENSION OR THE ELECTIVE SYSTEM IN THE UNDERGRADUATE DEPARTMENT.
1.—Scholastic exercises to be distributed over all the hours of the day from 9½ A.M. till 4 P.M. from Monday to Friday inclusive, and from 9½ till 11 on Saturday.
2.—Every student to be under instruction in class for three hours each day till Saturday, and for two hours on Saturday.
3.—Students, when not under class instruction, to be occupied in study in rooms set apart for the purpose.
4.—A recess of half an hour to be allowed at mid-day for lunch.
DEGREES.
1.—If no modification of the course of instruction or no enlargement of its scope be made, the only degree conferred at the close of the four years’ course to be the degree of Bachelor of Arts.
2.—Should the course be enlarged and liberty of option be increased, the degrees of Bachelor of Letters and Bachelor of Science to be also given.
3.—The course leading to the degree in Arts to remain unchanged, consisting as at present of a prescribed curriculum up to the close of the Junior year, and of a partially elective course during the Senior.
4.—For degrees in Letters and Science, the course to be identical with the course in Arts during the Freshman year, and to embrace as obligatory during the subsequent years all the subjects of that course in the departments of English Literature, History, and Political Science, occupying six hours in the Sophomore year per week; five hours in the Junior, and four hours in the Senior. The remaining hours up to seventeen per week to be occupied by elective studies. The degree in Letters to be conferred on those who choose as electives the Languages, Ancient or Modern, Literature, Psychology, and Philosophy; and the degree in Science on those who choose principally the Mathematics, Physics, Mechanics, Astronomy, and Chemistry. Specific regulations in regard to this subject to be made by the Faculty, with the approval of the Trustees.
INSTRUCTION TO GRADUATES
1.—Instruction to be given to graduates of this and of other Colleges who desire to fit themselves for literary or scientific work not professional; as for authorship, historical or philological research, scientific investigation, etc.
2.—Special courses of instruction adapted to the wants of such graduates to be arranged in the departments of Greek, Latin, Mathematics, Physics, Astronomy, Chemistry, Philosophy, Political Science, Natural History, and the Modern Languages. Only such courses to be attempted at present as can be conducted without materially increasing the staff of instructors.
3.—Notice to be publicly given before the close of the present academic year of the purpose to institute courses for graduates, with specification of such as may be commenced in October, 1880.
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(B.)
SCHOOL OF PREPARATION FOR THE CIVIL SERVICE, DIPLOMACY, AND THE EDITORIAL PROFESSION.
1.—A School to be instituted with a definitely prescribed curriculum of instruction, designed to prepare young men for public life, whether in the Civil Service at home or abroad, or in
the legislatures of the States or of the nation; and also to fit young men for the duties and responsibilities of public journalists.
2.—Students of our own College, or of other Colleges in good standing, who have completed with credit the undergraduate course up to the close of the Junior year, to be allowed to enter themselves as students in this School.
3.—The course of instruction to extend over three years.
4.—At the close of the first year, the student, on passing an approved examination, to be entitled to the degree of Bachelor of Philosophy.
5.—At the end of the course, the student who passes all his examinations with approval, to be recommended to the Trustees for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
6.—Students of this School to be permitted to attend such exercises of the Graduate or Undergraduate department as their time will allow, the approval of the Professors in the School being first obtained.
* * * * * * * * * * * * * *
(C.)
PROBABLE EFFECT ON REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE OF THE ADOPTION OF THE PROPOSED SCHEME.
I.—EXPENDITURE.
It must, in the first place, be considered that the exigencies of the College will require, whether this plan be adopted or not, the appointment, in anticipation of the opening of the ensuing academic year, of an additional tutor in Greek, of one in Latin, and of one also in Mathematics. This will involve an increase of annual expenditure not to be charged to the present project, of $3.600.
For the supervision of students in their study rooms it will be expedient to appoint two Proctors at salaries of one thousand dollars each per annum. It is probable that this amount might be reduced by arranging that Tutors may act as Proctors.
The department of Modern Languages, in regard to which our College is now deplorably deficient, would require the appointment of an instructor in Italian, and an instructor in Spanish, who might probably be engaged for about $1,300 per annum each. The instructor in French of the School of Mines would probably be willing, for a slight increase of compensation, to take charge of the French classes in College also.
These comprise all the additions to our annual outlay which it seems to be necessary at present to make. Summed up they are as follows:
| Two Superintendents of study rooms |
$2,000 |
| Two Instructors in Modern Languages |
$3,000 |
| Increase of salary of Instructor in French |
$500 |
| Total |
$5,500 |
II.—REVENUE.
The tuition fee now charged in the Undergraduate Department is less by fifty dollars per annum than that which is charged at Harvard College or at the University of Pennsylvania. It seems fitting that, in so largely increasing the advantages offered to students here, we should make our charges equal at least to what they are elsewhere. To increase the fee from $100 to $150 per annum would not diminish the number of our undergraduate students, and hence, even should the new attractions fail to add to our numbers, the effect of this measure would be to add $10,000 to our annual revenue.
It may, however, be safely estimated that, before two years shall have passed under the new system, we shall have at least twenty graduate students, and that the number of undergraduates will be more than equally increased. The following, then, are the items of the probable increase of revenue, viz.:
| From increase of tuition fee |
$10,000 |
| From graduate students (say 20) |
$3,000 |
| From increased number of undergraduates (say 20 also) |
$3,000 |
| Total |
$16,000 |
The probability, therefore, is that the adoption of the plan, if accompanied as it should be with a simultaneous increase of the tuition fee, will tend to enlarge rather than diminish the annual balance in the treasury.
If, now, we consider the further effect of the establishment of the proposed new school of preparation for the Civil Service, we shall have to add to the annual outlay the amount of the salaries of two Instructors or Adjunct Professors, one in Roman Law and one in Administrative Law, each of $2,500. On the other hand, we may safely count on attracting to this school, in the course of the next two or three years, at least fifty students—a number likely afterward largely and rapidly to increase. We may assume, then, at the end of the second year, something like the following, viz.:
I.—EXPENDITURE.
| Total as above |
$5,500 |
| Salaries of two instructors |
$5,000 |
| Total |
$10,500 |
II. REVENUE.
| Total as above |
$16,000 |
| Fees of fifty students |
$7,500 |
| Total |
$23,500 |
Leaving a probable balance in favor of the treasury of $13,000 per annum.
* * * * * * * * * * * * * *
(D.)
COURSES OF STUDY.
The subjects or authors herein enumerated as for undergraduates, are in general those taught during the academic year 1878-9. In the classical departments these are liable to be changed from year to year. Should the proposed plan be adopted, every course not marked as obligatory will be open for election to all undergraduates above the Freshman grade, without regard to year.
DEPARTMENT OF GREEK.
| 1.— Iliad or Odyssey, one term |
3 hours per week
Freshmen,
Obligatory. |
| 2.— Herodotus, one term |
| 3.—The Odyssey |
2 hours per week,
Freshmen,
Voluntary. |
| 4.—Aristophanes and minor poets |
2 hours,
Sophomores,
Voluntary. |
| 5.—Euripides, one term |
3 hours per week,
Sophomores,
Elective. |
| 6.—The Memorabilia, one term |
| 7.—Sophocles, one term |
3 hours per week,
Juniors,
Elective |
| 8.—Plato, one term |
| 9.—Æschylus, one term |
3 hours per week,
Seniors,
Elective |
| 10.—Demosthenes, one term |
| 11.—(To be announced annually in advance) |
2 hours per week,
Graduates. |
| 12.—(To be announced annually in advance) |
1 hour per week,
Graduates. |
DEPARTMENT OF LATIN.
| 1.—Pliny |
3 hours per week,
Freshmen,
Obligatory. |
| 2.—Horace, one term |
3 hours per week,
Sophomores,
Elective. |
| 3.—Livy, one term |
| 4.—Juvenal, one term |
3 hours per week,
Juniors,
Elective |
| 5.—Cicero De Officiis, one term |
| 6.—Terence, one term |
2 hours per week,
Seniors,
Elective |
| 7.—Catullus, one term |
| 8.—(To be announced annually in advance) |
2 hours per week,
Graduates,
Elective. |
| 9.—(To be announced annually in advance) |
1 hour per week,
Graduates,
Elective. |
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS.
| 1.—Geometry, one term |
5 hours per week,
Freshmen,
Obligatory. |
| 2.—Algebra, one term |
| 3.—Curves of Second Order, one term |
3 hours per week,
Sophomores,
Elective. |
| 4.—Trigonometry, Mensuration and Surveying, one term |
| 5.—Differential and Integral Calculus |
2 hours per week,
Seniors,
Elective |
| 6.—Calculus of Variations |
2 hours per week,
Graduates. |
| 7.—Quaternions |
2 hours per week,
Graduates. |
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICS AND ASTRONOMY.
| 1—Analytical Geometry, one term |
3 hours per week,
Juniors,
Elective. |
| 2.—Mechanics, one term |
| 3.—Astronomy |
3 hours per week,
Seniors,
Elective. |
| 4.—Practical Astronomy |
2 hours per week,
Graduates. |
| 5.—Spherical Astronomy |
2 hours per week,
Graduates. |
| 6.—Analytic Mechanics |
2 hours per week,
Graduates. |
| 7.—Physical Astronomy |
2 hours per week,
Graduates. |
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS.
| 1.—Elementary Physics |
2 hours per week,
Freshmen,
Obligatory. |
| 2.—Heat and Electricity |
2 hours per week,
Juniors,
Elective. |
| 3.—Optics and Acoustics |
3 hours per week,
Seniors,
Elective. |
| 4.—Mathematical Physics |
2 hours per week,
Graduates. |
| 5.—Methods of Physical Research |
2 hours per week,
Graduates. |
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY.
| 1.—Elementary Chemistry |
1 hour per week,
Freshmen,
Obligatory. |
| 2.—Theoretic Chemistry |
2 hours per week,
Sophomores or Seniors,
Elective. |
| 3.—Applied Chemistry |
2 hours per week,
Juniors,
Elective. |
| 4.—Organic Chemistry |
2 hours per week,
Graduates. |
| 5.—Methods of Chemical Research |
2 hours per week,
Graduates. |
DEPARTMENT OF PHILOSOPHY.
| 1.—Logic |
2 hours per week,
Juniors,
Obligatory. |
| 2.—Psychology |
2 hours per week,
Seniors,
Obligatory. |
| 3.—Philosophy |
3 hours per week,
Seniors,
Elective. |
| 4.—Physiological Psychology |
1 hour per week,
Graduates. |
| 5.—History of Philosophy |
2 hours per week,
Graduates. |
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LITERATURE.
| 1.—Rhetoric |
3 hours per week,
Freshmen,
Obligatory. |
| 2.—History of Literature |
2 hours per week,
Sophomores,
Obligatory. |
| 3.—English Classics |
1 hour per week,
Sophomores,
Obligatory. |
| 4.—Logic |
2 hours per week,
Juniors,
Obligatory. |
| 5.—English Classics |
1 hour per week,
Juniors,
Obligatory. |
| 6.—The Early English Authors |
2 hours per week,
Graduates. |
DEPARTMENT OF THE MODERN LANGUAGES.
| 1a.— French, Elementary Course |
3 hours per week each,
Undergraduates. |
| 1b.—Course of French Literature |
| 2a.— German, Elementary Course |
3 hours per week each,
Undergraduates. |
| 2b.— Course of German Literature |
| 3a.— Italian, Elementary Course |
3 hours per week each,
Undergraduates. |
| 3b.— Italian Literature |
1 hour per week each,
Graduates or Undergraduates. |
| 4a.— Spanish, Elementary Course |
3 hours per week each,
Undergraduates. |
| 4b.— Spanish Literature |
1 hour per week each,
Graduates or Undergraduates. |
DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY AND POLITICAL SCIENCE.
| 1.—Outlines of General History |
3 hours per week,
Sophomores,
Obligatory. |
| 2.—History of England and the United States, one term |
3 hours per week,
Juniors,
Obligatory. |
| —Political Economy, one term |
| 3.—Political Economy and Statistics |
3 hours per week,
Seniors,
Obligatory,and School of Civil Service. |
| 4.—British and American Constitutional history |
2 hours per week,
Seniors,
Obligatory. |
| 5.—General Constitutional History |
3 hours per week,
School of Civil Service. |
| 6.—Literature of Political Science |
1 hours per week,
3 hours per week,
School of Civil Service. |
| —Comparison of Constitutional law of Europe and the United States |
| 7.—Systems of Administration |
3 hours per week,
2 hours per week,
School of Civil Service. |
| —Comparison of Constitutional Differences of the American States |
| 8.—Comparison of Systems of Administration |
5 hours per week,
School of Civil Service. |
ROMAN AND INTERNATIONAL LAW.
| 1.—Roman Law |
3 hours per week,
School of Civil Service. |
| 2.—International Law |
3 hours per week,
School of Civil Service. |
DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY.
| 1.— General Geology |
1 hour per week,
Seniors,
Elective. |
| 2.— Palæontology |
1 hour per week,
Seniors,
Elective. |
| 3.— Lithological Geology, first term |
3 hours per week,
with School of Mines. |
| 4.— Cosmical and Historical Geology, second term |
3 hours per week,
with School of Mines. |
| 5.— Economical Geology |
2 hours per week, through the year
with School of Mines. |
NATURAL HISTORY.
| Botany, first term |
2 hours per week,
with School of Mines. |
| Zoology |
1 hour per week, throughout the year
with School of Mines. |
| Vegetable Physiology, Animal Physiology, Anatomy—Human and Comparative |
To be provided for. |
| Mineraology and Crystallography |
2 hours per week,
with School of Mines. |
LAW.
| 1.— Outlines of British Common Law |
Ten lectures. |
SEMITIC AND ORIENTAL LANGUAGES.
| Hebrew |
2 hours per week,
To be provided for. |
| Sanskrit |
2 hours per week,
To be provided for. |
Source: Columbia University Archives. Historical Subject Files, Series I: Academics and Research/Series VIII: Events/I. Box 289. Folder 1 “Political Science, Faculty of, 1920s-1930s”.
Image Source: John W. Burgess, from the Columbia University, Department of History webpage: A Short History of the Department of History.
differentiable cost function c(w,q) where w is a vector of input prices and q is the firm’s output level. The differentiable aggregate demand function for good 
and factor prices 
so that, letting 
be the conditional factor demand function for factor k, we have 
. What can be said about the short-run versus long-run output response of the firm to a differential change in the price of good 
giving the minimized cost of producing output q given factor prices w when factor k is fixed at level 
).
marginally increases, then firms’ equilibrium profits decline for any demand function 
with 
. Show that if your condition is not satisfied, then there exist demand functions such that profits increase when the price of input k increases. What does your condition imply about the firm’s conditional factor demand for input k?
, respectively, are unchanged. How many strategies does each player have in the altered game?
(where either 
) such that either
.
such that 
, (**) is violated, i.e., 
. In other words, player 2 is never indifferent between pairs of moves. Suppose that there exists a pure-strategy equilibrium in the game of part A in which 
is player 1’s payoff. Show that in any subgame-perfect equilibrium of part B, player 1’s payoff is at least 
holds for some pair 
with 
; or
and preferences expressed by an indirect utility function 
.
be a Pareto optimal allocation. The utility levels of this allocation are 
. The second welfare theorem asserts the existence of a price vector 
and wealth levels 
supporting the allocation. What does this mean? Express 
. Note that 
does not depend on i. In the following, neglect always boundary allocations. Use of pictures is permissible and helpful.
, that is, the preferences on commodity bundles are homothetic (but possibly different across consumers).
and two traders. In each state there is a spot market where a good is exchanged against numeraire. The utilities of the two traders are (the second good is the numeraire):
in the second state. All the endowments of this good are received by the second trader. Assume that the endowments of numeraire for the two traders are sufficient for us to neglect the possibility of boundary equilibria. The price of the numeraire is fixed to 1 in the two states. The prices of the non-numeraire good in the two states are denoted 
.
in the two states (as function of the parameter 
).
in the two states.
then Trader 1 is actually informed while if 
, s/he is not informed. A system of equilibrium spot prices 
is a rational expectation equilibrium if at the equilibrium Trader 1 derives information from 
. Exhibit a rational expectations equilibrium. Comment.
then there is no rational expectations equilibrium.
. (Hence there is at least one PL.) Then the decision mechanism is as above except that for the project to be carried out it is now required that at least 
self-declare as PL.
but it does for the case 
.)
