This post assembles five articles on German universities published by one of the founders of the American Economic Association, its twelfth president Edmund Janes James who like many of his contemporaries received his training in economics in Germany. It is interesting to see how in the 1880’s “Seminar” was italicized as a foreign word. Visitors to Economics in the Rear-View Mirror with experience in German/Austrian universities should find James’ observations and comparisons interesting as well. Biographical information about James is provided in today’s post as an extra bonus.
Americans studying in Germany, 1878
Biography of Edmund Janes James up to 1896
Publications of Edmund Janes James
“What is a German University” (1881)
“The Lecture versus the Recitation System” (1882)
“Political Economy in German Universities” (1882)
“The Degree of Ph.D. in Germany” (1888)
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Americans studying in Germany, 1878
The number of American students at German universities during the year 1878 amounted to 94, of whom 35 were at Berlin, 16 at Bonn, 30 at Göttingen. 2 at Breslau, 2 at Greifswald, 4 at Halle, 1 at Kiel, 2 at Marburg, and 2 at Münster. These students were scattered among all the faculties: 8 study theology, 11 law, 25 medicine, 22 philosophy and philology, 25 mathematics and natural sciences, and 8 financial science.
Source: Illinois School Journal, vol. I, no. 3 and 4 (July and August, 1881), p. 43.
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Biography of Edmund Janes James up to 1896
Dr. Edmund J. James, President of the Academy, leaves the University of Pennsylvania for the University of Chicago, February 1, 1896. In the University of Pennsylvania Dr. James was Professor of Public Finance and Administration in the Department of Finance and Economy (Wharton School), and Professor of Political and Social Science in the Graduate Faculty (Department of Philosophy). In the University of Chicago he will be Professor of Public Administration in the Department of Political Science, and Director of the University Extension Department.
Edmund Janes James was born May 21, 1855, at Jacksonville, Morgan County, Ill. He was prepared for college in the High School Department of the Illinois State Normal School, at Normal, Ill., from which he graduated in June, 1873.
He entered college at the Northwestern University at Evanston, Ill., in the autumn of 1873. Having been appointed Recorder on the United States Lake Survey he joined (May 1, 1874) the party of Engineer Terry, engaged on the upper St. Lawrence and the lower part of Lake Ontario. At the end of the season he entered Harvard College, matriculating November 2, 1874.
In July, 1875, he went to Europe to study political economy. He matriculated at the University of Halle, October 16, 1875, and after spending four semesters at that institution—during which time he attended lectures also at Berlin and Leipsic—he graduated from Halle in August, 1877, taking the degrees of M. A. and Ph. D.
On his return home in the autumn of 1877 he was appointed principal of the Public High School, in Evanston, Ill., from January 1, 1878. In June, 1879, he resigned this position to accept the principalship of the High School Department of the Illinois State Normal School at Normal, Ill., beginning work in September of that year. He resigned this position at Christmas time, 1882, in order to continue his studies in Europe, which he pursued during the summer semester of 1883 at various German universities.
On July 3, 1883, he was elected Professor of Public Finance and Administration in the Wharton School of Finance and Economy, University of Pennsylvania, to begin work the following September. Since 1886 he has had practical charge of this department. Under his influence its corps of instructors was largely increased, the subjects of instruction multiplied, and its curriculum extended from two years to four, changes which were followed by a large increase in the number of students. It was owing to his personal efforts that instruction in statistics, journalism, sociology, transportation, municipal government, jurisprudence, and politics was added to the work in history, economics, and finance. During this period the Wharton School of Finance and Economy became not only a successful department for higher commercial education, but also one of the leading centres for the study of economics and politics in the United States.
Shortly after going to the University of Pennsylvania, Professor James was also appointed December 12, 1883, Professor of Political and Social Science in the Graduate Faculty (Department of Philosophy), and from January, 1884, to January, 1888, was Secretary of this Faculty. While Secretary he proposed the regulations which with few changes, have remained the rules governing graduate study in the University until the present. He was also the first instructor of the Faculty to introduce the seminary method of instruction which has become such a marked feature of all advanced work in the University. He was in Europe on leave of absence during the academic year 1888-89.
On April 8, 1891, he was elected President of the American Society for the Extension of University Teaching, an association organized to promote the introduction and development of University Extension methods of instruction throughout the United States. He held this position until September 1, 1895, during which time the work of the society was greatly extended and strengthened. The number of lecture courses rose from 42 in 1890-91 to 126 in 1894-95; while the number in attendance increased from 7400 to 20,000.
While at the University Professor James declined various calls to other institutions either as president or professor. He was offered the presidency of two leading western State universities. He was also offered an Assistant Professorship in Political Economy at Harvard in 1890 and the head Professorship of Political Science at the University of Chicago in 1892. He was appointed delegate from the University of Pennsylvania to the tercentenary celebration of Trinity College, Dublin, in 1892, and to the bicentennial of the University of Halle in 1894.
Professor James is an active member of various societies and associations of a scientific and practical character. He has been a member of the National Educational Association since 1879. He was elected a member of the National Council of Education in 1884 and has delivered addresses before the association on “College Education for Business Men,” “University Extension ” and ” Normal School Education.”
He was chosen a member of the American Philosophical Society, April 18, 1884.
Since September, 1885 he has been a member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science; since 1891 a Fellow of that body. He was Vice-President and Chairman of Section I in 1891, and has read papers at its sessions on “The Share of Labor in Distribution,” “Manual Training in the Public Schools” and “The Farmer and Taxation.”
Since 1885 he has been a member of the American Social Science Association; was Secretary of the Department of Social Economy, 1887-88, and one of the directors of the association for the years 1890-92. He has read papers on “The Bullitt Bill Charter of Philadelphia,” “Schools of Political and Social Science,” “The Single Tax Theory.”
As one of the early members (1883) of the Public Education Association of Philadelphia he delivered addresses before that body on “Financial and Administrative Aspects of Public Education,” “The Need of Reorganization in Our Public School System,” etc., and has been for two years past Chairman of the Executive Committee of that body.
He was one of the founders of the American Economic Association in 1885, and, as Chairman of the Committee on Organization, reported the plan which has proved so successful in practice. He was for some time Vice-President and has been a frequent contributor to its series of publications.
Having been much interested in the movement for the preservation and better management of our forests, he was one of the original members (1886) of the Pennsylvania Forestry Association and of the Council of that body. He delivered addresses before the association on “The Relation of the State to our Forests,” “The Economic Significance of Our Forests,” etc.
He was actively concerned in the organization of the Pennsylvania College Association in 1887, which was subsequently converted into the Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools in the Middle States and Maryland. He delivered addresses at its sessions on ”The American University,” “University Extension,” and “The American College,” and was for some time treasurer of the association.
He was one of the founders of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, and, at the first meeting for formal organization December 14, 1889, was elected President, an office to which he has since been annually re-elected.
He was one of the first to take part in the recent movement for the improvement of city politics in the United States; was one of the organizers of the Municipal League of Philadelphia (out of which the National Association of Municipal Leagues has grown) and served as its first president from December 1, 1891.
Professor James’ contributions to the literature of the subjects in which he has been interested have been numerous.
With Dr. Charles DeGarmo, President of Swarthmore College, he founded the Illinois School Journal, now the Public School Journal, one of the most influential educational periodicals in the West. As editor of this magazine for two years, 1881-82, he contributed many papers to the current discussion of the time, relating to the pedagogical and administrative aspects of public education.
As editor of the Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science he has for the past five years directed the policy of this periodical. Under his direction it has expanded from a quarterly to a bimonthly with numerous supplements, and has grown steadily and rapidly in scope and influence.
In addition to the work on the above periodicals, Professor James was one of the leading contributors to the “Cyclopaedia of Political Science, Political Economy and United States History,” edited by John J. Lalor, Chicago, 1882-84. (Referred to below as Lalor’s Cyclopaedia.)
Source: The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Vol. 7 (January, 1896), pp. 78-86.
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For more biographical information after 1896:
Edmund Janes James: Twelfth President of the Economic Association, 1910. American Economic Review, Vol. 34, No. 3 (September 1944).
Ernest Minor Patterson. The career of Edmund Janes James. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 301, (September, 1955), pp. 97-100.
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Publications of Edmund Janes James
James B. Childs. A Bibliography of the Published Writings and Addresses of Edmund Janes James (Library School Seminar, University of Illinois, Second Semester, 1919-20).
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WHAT IS A GERMAN UNIVERSITY?
by Edmund Janes James
Source: Illinois School Journal, vol. I, no. 5 (September, 1881), pp. 1-2.
A German University is a corporation whose objects are the increase and spread of knowledge. Like all institutions of learning the German University consists of professors and students together with the various directors and officers connected with the corporation. The former are divided into four faculties, according to the various branches in which they respectively give and receive instructions, viz., the Theological, the Medical, the Law and the Philosophical faculty. The first three terms explain themselves— they comprehend about what we in this country include in our Law, Medical and Theological schools. The last mentioned faculty, viz., the Philosophical, gives instruction in all branches not included in the three former. It corresponds, to a certain extent, with our College of Liberal Arts. It teaches, not only Mental, Moral and Speculative Philosophy, but also Ancient and Modern Languages, History, Archaeology, the Physical Sciences, Mathematics, the Fine Arts, Political Economy, Sociology, Diplomacy, etc., including about every branch of human science, and quite a number of arts, such as dancing, fencing, riding, drawing and singing, in all of which branches there are instructors in the ordinary university.
These faculties are all independent of one another and yet all most intimately connected. A student enrolled in one has a perfect right to hear any and all the courses in the other faculties without additional expense. Candidates for graduation in one faculty are often required to take studies in another. As for instance, the Medical students are required in some places to hear a course in Speculative Philosophy, while those in Political Economy are expected to hear courses in International Law and the Constitutional History of Germany. The professors in each faculty, and consequently in the whole university are further divided into three classes, viz., ordinary professors, extraordinary professors and privat docenten. The first mentioned are appointed and paid by the government. Taken together, they either constitute or elect the academical senate—the executive body of the university. The extraordinary professors are nominated by the university senate and confirmed by the government. They are entitled to no pay; but it is almost universally the custom to vote them a small salary,—600 or 1,000 thalers. The privat docenten are appointed by the university authorities. They receive no salary, and depend altogether on their fees in case they have no other means of support. These three terms have been translated into English as full professors, assistant professors, and tutors. But the similarity is not great enough to justify such translation. Our assistant professors are simply assistants. They are expected to take the drudgery off the hands of the professor, to take the classes he doesn’t want, to do the elementary work. And our tutors might be called assistant-assistant professors; for they stand in the same relation to the assistant professor that the latter does to the full professor. The relation of the three mentioned classes to one another in the German institution is, however, radically different. The privat docent is just as independent as the ordinary professor. He has the right to lecture on the same subjects, to appeal to the same class of hearers, in a word to compete in the freest manner for the patronage of the students. His certificate that the student has attended his course of lectures counts for just as much in the eyes of the university authorities as the ordinary professor’s certificate. He is on the same footing as the ordinary professor except that he has no salary from the government. These privat docenten may be considered as candidates for professorships. A young man graduates from the university, and desires to devote himself to a university career. He spends a year or two as the case may be in preparing a course of lectures. He then applies for permission to locate in some university. He posts the announcement of his lecture on the bulletin board, and at the time appointed he begins his lecture. Three or four students drop in to see what the new man is like. If he has something to say and can say it in an attractive and forcible manner, he may count upon a full lecture room. If the ordinary professor in that subject has become fossilized or negligent, he may experience the mortification of seeing his lecture-room deserted, and perhaps be finally compelled to hand over his larger lecture room to the younger man because the latter can draw the larger crowd.
We dwell on this matter of the privat docenthum because it seems to us that it is one of the most important elements in the German system. By it is secured, as a rule, constant exertion on the part of the older professors to furnish something new and solid, and to keep themselves fresh and active, lest the younger men supplant them. It offers further, to those young men who wish to follow a university career, an opportunity to begin their work as soon as they have graduated, and if they have the ability, a chance to succeed from the very first. And thus they retain the very cream of the rising generation for university work.
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THE LECTURE VERSUS THE RECITATION SYSTEM
A COMPARISON BETWEEN THE METHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN GERMAN AND AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES.
by Edmund Janes James
Source: Illinois School Journal, vol. I, no. 11 (March, 1882), pp. 13-14.
In considering the merits of any system of instruction, we ought to have regard to its relations toward both classes of individuals most affected by it, viz., the pupils and the teachers, the students and the professors. We ought to adopt that system which, on the whole, secures the best results for both parties. The catechetical, or recitation system has too exclusive reference to the pupils; the lecture system as practiced in many places, is too exclusively on the side of the teachers. A college professor is an entirely different person in Germany, from what he is here. The Germans make a world-wide difference between the Professor and the Lehrer, or instructor. That difference disappears in our economy. Our professor, as far as we use the word in a technical sense, is one who teaches college boys—the kind of work is exactly the same as the public school teacher’s—the only difference is that he has different subjects, though that isn’t true to the same extent now as formerly. We confine our teachers to the mere routine work of putting into the minds of their students a certain number of text-books. We overload them with work so that they have no chance to develop. We require them to teach, so many different subjects that they can never acquire more than a text-book knowledge of them. We impose so many hours’ work and so much outside responsibility upon them that they are thoroughly wearied, when they get a few moments’ or hours’ leisure, and need all the time to recuperate their health. This complaint comes from nearly every college in the country. The faculty of Yale College asserted only a few months ago, that every professor in the institution had too much drudgery to perform. In this way we deprive ourselves, as a country, of one of the most powerful means of promoting general culture. We impress upon our professors the fact that they are first, last and all the time, primarily teachers. They are not expected to make new discoveries. We do not care to have them add to the sum total of our knowledge. All that we desire is that they shall teach our boys what is known.
So far has this spirit been carried at times, that, in a prominent institution of one of our large Western States, a professor who was busily engaged in preparing a much needed text-book, was informed that if he engaged in any more such undertakings his services would be dispensed with. In Germany things are radically different. A professor is primarily a scholar. He is expected to be a student. Only about five hours’ work a week is required of him. He can devote his time to original investigations and give the results of his labors to the world in the form of lectures. He has no responsibility of government. He has no examination papers to correct. He can lecture at the time most convenient to him, and as many hours or as few (not less than five a week, however) as he chooses. In a word, he is a man paid by the government for devoting himself to original investigation and research, with the condition of formulating his results into lectures; and indeed this is an actual aid, rather than a hindrance in his work. It compels him to put into a concise shape the result of his investigation, and enables him to present the same in a systematic form, to the consideration of a number of educated young men. How different the case of the American college professor, who stands before a class, one half of whom do not care anything about, and the rest of whom do not stand in need of, that weary quizzing of the know-nothings, which it is a part of his duty to perform. How easy it is for one to become wooden and mechanical in doing that sort of work! and no wonder either, for it is, after all, a mechanical thing.
If, then, our American theory is the correct one; viz., that it is the professor’s business to see to it that a certain number of students have committed a certain text-book to memory, which he himself has previously committed as a part of his preparation, then the dialogical (I had almost said diabolical) method is the correct one. If, on the contrary, the Germans have the right idea, if a college professor is a student, whose business it is to present the result of his studies in an impressive and attractive form to a crowd of enthusiastic and earnest learners, then the lecture system is the only valuable and practicable method of realizing this idea.
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GERMAN STUDENT-LIFE
by Edmund Janes James
Source: Illinois School Journal, vol. I, no. 9 (January, 1882), pp. 13-15.
Let us look for a moment at the means at their disposal for prosecuting their studies. In the first place we have the lectures which we have already mentioned. We found that they were, for the professors, the best method of instruction. Now we may ask the question how is the lecture system adapted for the student? Can he retain what he hears so as to make it of any permanent value to him? I answer yes! Of the possibilities of the system we know almost nothing in this country. This power of retaining what one hears is a mere matter of practice. You have all heard the story of the father, who required his little boy to tell him each Sunday, what the preacher had said, and who finally succeeded in training him so that he could repeat the sermon almost word for word. The little German child is trained in the same way. Stories are read to him once, and he is required to write them out from memory and to keep up this practice until he can write almost everything he hears in a lecture of forty or fifty minutes. Such is the boy as he comes to the university. He can listen to the professor an hour, and come out and repeat the lecture substantially from beginning to end. We can not realize, I will not say the possibilities, but the actualities achieved under this system, until we have come in actual contact with them.
But even if the lecture system did not serve its end so well as it does, it might still be borne with, since it is supplemented, 1st, by private societies among the students, which are kept up by those who take an interest in some one branch, as for instance, mathematics or history. 2nd, by seminars, or small clubs conducted by the professors. I desire to call your attention especially to this feature as it has been but little noticed so far as I know by writers on German universities, and but little enjoyed by most Americans who study in Germany. In my opinion, these seminars are the most important element, in many respects, of the German university. They are but little more than methodically conducted conversations in reference to the subjects chosen for discussion. They are generally held at the house of the various professors, although, if too large, or if the professor’s house is too far away, they are held in the college building. The plan pursued varies with the subject and the professor. In the politico-economical seminar for instance, a list of subjects was generally proposed at the beginning of the term upon which essays were to be written. Each member chose one or more subjects according to his inclination, and as he had time, studied it up, and gave notice when he should read it. The members of the seminar looked up the same subject somewhat, so as to be ready for the discussion which always followed the essay. After a thorough discussion, the professor summed up what had been advanced on each side, giving his own opinion and his reasons for it.
In the philosophical seminar we read the first term, Spinoza, simply pronouncing the Latin, and if we came across a difficult sentence, stopping long enough to translate it. We would read a paragraph and the professor would stop and ask some one what he thought of that, or if that was a new idea in philosophy, first imported by Spinoza, or where did he steal that point? or who developed it after him? or, is that sound logic? &c, &c, varying his questions now and then by a biographical one. Prof. Haym, who conducted the seminars, was one of the most popular men at Halle. He was a really eloquent speaker, and his lectures on the History of Philosophy were well attended. I must relate a little incident which happened in connection with our seminar under him, and which illustrates the peculiar temperament and manner of the man. It was the close of our term on Spinoza. There had been seven of us in the club; we had met regularly at his house, and he had always set out the cigars and told the boys to help themselves. As the days grew long and warm, for it was the spring semester, he had refreshments of various sorts, and some of the boys concluded that we ought to make him some return for the pains he had taken. After due deliberation, we contributed, as heaven had blessed us, and appointed a committee to purchase a copy of Leibnitzen’s works. For some inscrutable reason which I have never been able to ascertain, the committee concluded to purchase, instead, a bust of the philosopher, Kant. “When I took my book to the professor to sign, he asked me to step into the hall and inquired if I had had anything to do with that thing, raising as he spoke, a cloth which covered a bust of the immortal Kant. “It came from my seminar, I understand. I hope it won’t be repeated. I wish to invite you to take supper with me on next Monday evening where you will meet the other members of the seminar.” At the appointed hour we had all arrived and were sitting in the parlor, expecting every moment that the professor would lead the way to the dining-room, when he slowly arose and said, “Gentlemen, I should like to see you in my study for a moment, if you please.” We followed him into his sanctum, where upon the table stood our bust of Kant. As soon as we had all come in, he turned half way toward the bust, and half toward us, and began: “Gentlemen, although I recognize your honorable intentions in making me this present, yet it has grieved me more than I can tell you, to see that you have tried to pay me off in this way. I gave you my time gladly and will do it again whenever yon feel a desire to pursue your studies on this subject further, but I am very sorry that you should attempt to get even with me in- this manner. I must therefore decline this present, in the first place, because I never accept presents, on principle. In the second place if I should accept a present, I could not take a bust. You see that I have no room for one,” and he pointed to the walls of the room, which really presented no position where a bust could be placed. ” In the third place, if I should be willing to accept a bust, I do not care for one of Kant’s, for I have one already. And finally, even if I should be willing to accept one of Kant, I should not want that, for it is really the poorest bust of Kant that has ever been made. It does not bear the slightest resemblance to him. The merchant has sold you completely. It not only does not resemble Kant, but it has no merit whatever in an artistic point of view. I asked Prof. Herzblerg to-day (who was senior professor of art in Halle) if I might put it in the university chapel, but he said he would not have it there. To save you from all loss, so far as I could, I went to the merchant who sold it to you, and he has agreed to take it back, and refund all the money but two marks, which he claims as expense for delivering and taking it back again, so here is your money; never attempt to make me a present again. Supper is ready, let us go;” and with that he led the way to the dining-room. It is needless to add, that we followed his wishes to the letter, in reference to making him presents:
It will be seen from our above description of seminar work, how valuable these seminars are as supplements to the lectures. If one joins such a society, one is sure of finding young men who are pursuing the subject in earnest, no idlers or dilettants are admitted. As they are gratuitous and private, the professors have the right to refuse admittance to any they choose, and they exercise this right pretty regularly, to keep out those whom they think wish to join for mere appearance-sake. One finds among the members, men who have been pursuing the subject from six months to three years, and consequently has from the very first, the most intimate intercourse with students who know more of the subject than himself. There is, beside, the advantage of personal contact with the professor, as the sessions are generally held at his private house.
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POLITICAL ECONOMY IN GERMAN UNIVERSITIES
by Edmund Janes James
Source: The Nation, September 28, 1882. pp. 261-62.
To the Editor of The Nation:
Sir: The notice, in a recent number of the Nation of Professor Fredericq’s report on instruction in history in the German universities, suggests the thought that perhaps a short account of the instruction in political economy in these schools would be of interest to your readers. I describe the work as it is laid out in the University of Halle, both because I am better acquainted with that institution and because, in the opinion of competent critics, the work there is, on the whole, better organized than at any other similar school in Germany.
Instruction in political economy is given, in the first place, by lectures. There are three professors in this department. In the course of a year they offer several series of lectures on the following subjects: History of Political Economy, Theoretical Political Economy, Practical Political Economy (the discussion of the economic problems of modern society), Science of Finance, Statistics, Police Supervision, and Administration. lectures upon other subjects are occasionally given, especially upon economic topics of current interest.
These lectures are supplemented (1) by the politico-economic Seminar, and (2) by the politico-economic debating society. The former is organized as a department of the University; its object is to provide opportunities for those who wish to make a specialty of economics. It is a society of students under the direction of a professor. It meets for two or three hours, regularly, once a week, sometimes oftener. The exercises consist of essays by the students on subjects suggested by the director, followed by discussion and criticism of them. At the beginning of the term the professor prepares a list of subjects, theoretical, practical, and historical, from which each of the members of the Seminar chooses two or more which he agrees to present during the term. A programme is made out, and one or two of these essays assigned to each session. The subjects being known beforehand, each member of the society is expected to prepare himself for the discussion which follows the reading. Such subjects as the following are assigned: Value, Banks of Issue, Double Standard, Income-Tax, State Ownership of Railways, etc. The student is expected to know, for instance, in the first case, the opinions of all prominent economists in reference to the subject, and their definitions of it. He must be able to give reasons for his own view, accompanied with refutation of the views he rejects, etc. It will be seen that the director has an excellent opportunity in his questions to test the thoroughness and extent of the student’s investigation and to form an opinion of his ability.
The object of the society is really to promote original work in economics. A liberal amount of money is appropriated to the purchase of all recent publications of value in any language for the Seminar library. The society, although not yet fifteen years old, has done valuable original work, and its publications are rapidly acquiring an enviable reputation in Germany. A recent pamphlet by one of the members on “American Competition in European Markets” attracted the attention of the Government, and the young man who wrote it was offered a place on a commission which was to come to America and investigate the whole subject and report to the Imperial Government, but he was prevented from accepting by his election to the Reichstag. All possible assistance is given to those who aim to do original work, and the keen but sympathizing criticism of professor and fellow-student is no small aid in preventing mortifying blunders and mistakes. Professor Conrad, who now has charge of the society, is a really great teacher, able to inspire enthusiasm for his work, and wisely to direct the efforts of his students. There is also a statistical Seminar under his charge, which makes a specialty of original work in statistics.
The politico-economic debating society is under the control of the students, and discusses economic questions in the form of resolutions. It occupies itself, naturally enough, rather with practical questions of current interest than with purely theoretical problems. Its work is more serious and valuable than the work of corresponding organizations with us, because each of the members has had a tolerably complete course in political economy before he enters it.
It will be seen that the advantages offered the liberally-trained student who desires to specialize are excellent. Such a system would, of course, be of no value in our ordinary colleges, whose students need the drill and training of school-boys much more than they do opportunities for original research.
E.J. James
Normal, Ill., Sept. 12, 1882.
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THE DEGREE OF PH.D. IN GERMANY
by Edmund J. James
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.
Source: The Andover Review, vol. 9, no. 54 (June, 1888), pp. 611-623.
The conditions on which the degree of Ph. D. should be granted has formed a subject of debate among American college authorities for some years past. The result of the discussion up to the present time has not been all that one could desire who likes uniformity in such matters as the giving of academic honors.
It may help towards its solution if we examine the condition of things in Germany at the present time in regard to this question. As is well known, the degree of Doctor of Philosophy is preeminently a German degree. It was the German universities which, by adopting it as the highest literary degree which they conferred, have given it a standing among the learned institutions of the world. It has been used in this country to so large an extent as an honorary degree, and given away so lavishly to men of high station and low station, and, indeed, of no station at all, that those who hold it on examination are almost ashamed of it, and finally, in order to defend themselves, have adopted the expedient so long in vogue in England of writing after their degrees the name of the university from which it is taken.
In the discussions on the subject which have occurred in this country it has been quite generally assumed that the conditions of granting this degree in Germany are practically uniform. This is true in a certain degree, but it is by no means true to the extent generally supposed. I propose in the following article to give a summary of the conditions required for this degree in Germany, so far as they can be deduced from the printed requirements of the various institutions, and from a somewhat extended personal investigation on my own part.
The rules and regulations of the different faculties in regard to the granting of this degree have been all collected and published by Dr. Baumgart, in a small book, dated Berlin, 1885. [3rd edition, 1888]There is a certain normal procedure in course for this degree which may be deduced by taking the requirements which are common to the larger number of universities. The requirements in the Prussian universities are somewhat more uniform than those of the other German states. For the purpose of this article, therefore, it will be best to describe the course for the Prussian degree, and then note the variations in the case of each university.
A Prussian who wishes to take the degree of Doctor of Philosophy from a Prussian university must first graduate at one of the schools which are recognized by law as entitled to prepare students for the university. These schools are of two kinds: the classical colleges or gymnasia, whose course of study, extending over nine years, is chiefly devoted to Latin, Greek, and mathematics, with some attention to history, modern languages, and natural science; and the Latin scientific, or real schools, whose course, of equal length with that of the gymnasia, differs from it in having no Greek, and giving much more attention to modern languages and natural science. After graduating at one of these schools the candidate must attend a German university for at least three years.
If he desires to come up for his degree at the earliest possible moment he must, during these three years, prepare a dissertation on some topic connected with the line of study to which he has devoted most attention. When he applies for permission to be examined for the degree he must present certificates showing his graduation from one of the above-mentioned preparatory schools, and also that he has completed the academic triennium. He must also present his dissertation, and designate two subjects in which he is willing to be examined besides philosophy, in which all candidates must pass an examination. The application must be in Latin. He must append to the dissertation certain propositions or theses which he is willing to defend against all critics. If his dissertation is considered satisfactory, and his certificates are in order, he is then admitted to an oral examination, in the presence of the faculty, on the subjects before mentioned. This examination may last from two to four hours. If the candidate successfully passes this ordeal, he must then defend his dissertation and the appended theses in public against certain specially selected critics, in some cases chosen by himself, in others appointed by the faculty. If this test is pronounced successful, he is then admitted to the formal act of graduation, and the degrees of Master of Liberal Arts and Doctor of Philosophy are conferred upon him.
Such may be called the normal course of events in the progress toward this degree. There are variations from it in almost every university, and the sum total of variations is large, though in no case is a variation made which is regarded as of vital importance. How important such deviations are, can be best seen from a comparison of the requirements of different universities with regard to each of these elements.
The course of pre-university education necessary for this degree is determined in Prussia by the State Department of Education. The government determines what schools may prepare for the university, and then carefully prescribes the course of study of such schools. Prior to 1870 only graduates of the gymnasia or classical schools were admitted to the Prussian universities. In that year the government ordered that graduates of the Latin, scientific, or ” real schools of the first order,” as they are technically called, should also be admitted to the universities in the philosophical faculty, that is, the department which includes everything but law, medicine, and theology. They are admitted to examination for the degree of Ph. D. on the same terms as the graduates of the classical colleges, except they must, of course, not choose subjects in their final examination for which a knowledge of Greek is considered necessary, such as classical philology or ancient history. The law permits students from outside of Prussia to be admitted without these certificates of graduation, on their showing to the satisfaction of the faculty that they possess the requisite maturity and mental discipline to pursue successfully university studies. As a matter of fact, no inquiry is made in regard to students from outside of Germany in regard to their qualifications. All who apply are admitted, unless they are women, or are evidently immature. If they wish to come up for degrees, the case is somewhat different, and will be noticed later.
There are twenty-one institutions within the present limit of the German empire which have power to grant the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
Of the ten Prussian institutions only one, namely, Göttingen, makes in its rules any express distinction between the graduates of the gymnasia and the real schools. Göttingen limits the choice of subjects of the latter class, in their final examination, to mathematics, natural sciences, and modern languages. In the case of the other nine universities the same restriction certainly exists tacitly, even if they would admit candidates to a somewhat wider range of choice than the University of Göttingen. The government does not permit the graduates of real schools to present themselves for the public examination for teachers in any other branches than those mentioned in the rules of Göttingen, and while this provision does not bind the universities to make the same requirements in the case of graduation, yet the tendency to do this, it must be admitted, would naturally be very great.
Of the more important non-Prussian universities, Leipzig requires, as a rule, graduation from a gymnasium, but the faculty may, in its discretion, accept the diploma of a real school as the equivalent of the former. Erlangen and Würzburg accept the real school certificate when one of the following subjects is selected as the principal branch: mathematics, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, geology, botany, or zoology. In all other cases they require the gymnasium certificate. Freiburg requires simply “evidences of satisfactory preparation,” and reserves to the faculty the right to decide what evidences are satisfactory. As a matter of fact it accepts the two certificates as equivalent. Giessen accepts the real school certificates in the case of candidates who have chosen either natural, mathematical, political, or technical science, but requires the gymnasium certificate in other cases. Heidelberg takes much the same position as Freiburg. Jena accepts the same rule as Göttingen. Munich follows the same policy as Erlangen, except that it also grants a doctor of political science, for which it accepts real school certificates, and in general reserves to the faculty the right to accept other certificates as the equivalent of either of these. Rostock and Strasburg make no distinction between the two certificates. Tübingen grants the doctor of philosophy only in philosophy, philology, languages, and history, for which it requires the gymnasium certificate; but it also grants a doctor of science of equivalent rank, for which it accepts the real school or any equivalent certificate.
All the universities admit foreigners to the examinations if they can show by satisfactory testimonials or by examination that they possess what the faculty regard as a preparation fairly equivalent to that required of German students. Strasburg requires, however, that all candidates, whether German or foreign, shall prove their ability to translate from Greek or Latin, while the rules of Leipzig provide that, in the case of foreigners, the school and university certificates usual in the country of the candidate will be accepted, if they are sufficient to convince the faculty of the fitness of the candidate.
In general, then, it may be said that the German universities all require some knowledge of Latin, mathematics, and modern languages as a prerequisite to the degree of Ph. D. How much is required can be known from the fact that the course of the school whose certificate is accepted as unquestionably giving the necessary preparation is nine years in length, and keeps a boy busy from his ninth to his eighteenth year. On the other hand, no German university requires a knowledge of Greek for its highest literary degree, including not merely the doctor of philosophy, but also the master of arts as well. A German Ph. D. need not know one Greek letter from another, and will yet be acknowledged as entitled to the privilege of entering the academic career.
The requirement of three years’ residence at the university is made in nearly all the German universities, except those of Bavaria, where four years are required of Bavarians. The certificate of any German university is accepted by each of the other universities as fully equal to its own. Berlin and Göttingen accept the certificates of attendance not only from German universities, but also from all universities organized on the general plan of German universities. Erlangen accepts three years spent in a polytechnic school as equivalent to two of the three years required. Freiburg and Rostock accept time spent in foreign universities and foreign or domestic technical schools of high rank as equivalent, term for term, to that spent in the university. Giessen permits the faculty to make such requirements of foreigners as may seem proper to it, allowing them to dispense with testimonials of the sort required of native students. Heidelberg and Kiel do not require any definite number of years, reserving it for the faculty to decide whether the candidate has studied a satisfactory length of time. Three years is probably taken here also as the normal period. Leipzig demands, ” as a rule,” from candidates from the German empire, a certificate of three years’ attendance at some university where the German language is used as the ordinary medium, recognizing in this way the equality of Austrian, Swiss, and Germano-Russian universities. Corresponding certificates are required of foreigners, though the faculty can waive the requirement in either case. Munich and Würzburg require “evidence of several years’ study of the principal branch offered,” and at least four years in the case of Bavarian applicants. Strasburg requires at least three years in the case of native students, though the faculty is authorized to make exceptions when it may seem good to them. The rules of the other universities contain nothing at all on this point, or simply provide that three years’ attendance at a university is required.
The dissertation must be in the Latin language. Provision is made in all cases for special exceptions to be made, except when the candidate comes up for examination in ancient philology. Berlin, Bonn, Göttingen, and Königsberg prescribe that if the thesis relates to topics connected with classical and Oriental philology and antiquities or ancient history and philosophy it must be written in Latin. In all other cases the faculty may, at its discretion, accept a thesis in German, but in case it does so, the candidate may be required at the public examination to show that he can read and translate a passage assigned him from some Roman classic. Breslau and Greifswald limit the topics in which Latin must be used to classical philology and ancient history. Erlangen, Jena, Munich, Tübingen, and Würzburg allow either Latin or German, and the faculty may accept other languages. Freiburg says nothing of the language in which the thesis shall be written. Giessen allows either Latin or German, but in case of students of philology the thesis must be in one of the languages which the candidate chooses for his principal subjects. Göttingen expressly prescribes “that no translation, poems, or any other writings whose excellence consists chiefly in their rhetorical or stylistic form, nor any mere expressions of personal convictions on religious, political, aesthetic, and other questions, will be accepted. There must at least be an attempt to treat the subject in a scientific manner, either historico-critical or demonstrative.” Halle requires Latin in all cases, except “those in which the subject offers serious difficulties to the use of Latin,” and the faculty must decide whether this is true or not. Heidelberg does not require a dissertation, and is indifferent as to what language is used, if one be submitted. Kiel, Leipzig, Marburg, and Strasburg require Latin only in case the thesis relates to classical philology. The faculty of Leipzig may accept theses in other languages. Minister requires Latin only in case the thesis relates to the classical languages or literatures. Rostock requires Latin, as a rule, in the case of classical philologists; in other cases, German, English, or French will be accepted.
Freiburg, Giessen, and Jena require that the dissertation shall be truly scientific in character. Kiel requires that the dissertation shall be a science-furthering one. Konigsberg speaks of it as a “specimen of the scientific knowledge of the candidate.” Leipzig prescribes that “the dissertation will not be satisfactory unless it shows clearly that the candidate is thoroughly acquainted with the subject, and can discuss it with some independence of judgment. It must contain exact references to all the more important sources of information used by the candidate. A good form and correct language are absolutely necessary conditions.” Munich provides that in case there are any serious doubts as to the scientific value of a dissertation it is to be refused forthwith. Tübingen uses almost the same language in describing the kind of dissertation which will be satisfactory, as Leipzig. The other statutes merely call for a dissertation, or a ” scientific dissertation,” or a “dissertation on some scientific topic.” Some of the universities permit papers previously published to be used for theses, others require that they shall be specially prepared for graduation.
The oral examination comprises, as a rule, three subjects, one of which must be designated as the principal subject, and two as subordinate branches. In Munich alone, a written examination is also required. Three questions are agreed upon by the professors of the principal branch selected by the candidate, and handed, sealed, to the candidate, who must answer them, in writing, within two hours, in the presence of the Dean and one professor. The object of the oral examination is declared in the rules of Leipzig to be chiefly to ascertain in how far the special knowledge displayed in the dissertation is associated with a more comprehensive knowledge of the whole department, and of those departments most closely allied with it. In many universities philosophy and Latin are required in all such examinations. Philosophy, as used in the requirements, except where it is taken as a principal subject when it means much more, includes usually such a knowledge of logic, mental philosophy, ethics, and history of speculative philosophy as a student might get from preparing himself to pass examination in a course on each topic embracing, say sixty to ninety lectures, or in some text-book on each topic, such as we use in our American colleges. Berlin prescribes nothing as to the number of subjects chosen, but prescribes that the examination is to be conducted by four ordinary, that is, full professors, two of whom must represent the principal branch of the candidate, and every other ordinary professor shall have the right to put any questions he chooses to the candidate. This would seem to imply that the candidate will also be examined in subordinate or allied branches. The choice of subjects may be made from the whole list of subjects represented in the faculty of philosophy. In Bonn the examination consists of two parts, that looking to the degree of master of arts, and that looking toward the doctorate. In the first part the candidate is examined in philosophy, mathematics, natural sciences, ancient languages, and history. In the latter the proficiency of the candidate is tested in the special knowledge of those branches in which he professes to have made special studies. In the statutes of Bonn there is a distinct acknowledgment of the professional character of the degree of Ph. D. They say in one clause that the doctor examination differs from that for master of arts by a particularly careful and thorough test in those branches to which the candidate has specially devoted himself, and in which he thinks that he can soon begin his career as teacher. In another place they say distinctly that the degree of Ph. D., which is higher than master, may be properly conferred only on those of whom it can be truly said that they possess a tested efficiency as teachers in their branch of study. Breslau provides that the examination shall include the chief subject of the candidate, and some subordinate branches, including philosophy, and in the case of philologists history also. Erlangen prescribes that the examination shall extend to the branch to which the thesis relates as principal branch, and also to two other branches to be chosen by the candidate, and designated by him to the Dean before the examination. The choice of subjects is limited somewhat by the division of the faculty and studies. The studies are arranged in two groups, as follows: —
- Systematic Philosophy, History of Philosophy, Pedagogics, Classical Philology, Classical Literature, Classical Antiquities, Germanic Philology, Romanic Philology, English Philology, Oriental Philology, History, History of Art, and Political Science.
- Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Mineralogy, Geology, Botany, Zoology.
The three studies chosen may all either be taken from one group, or the candidate may take two from one and one from the other.
Freiburg prescribes three subjects to be approved by the faculty. Giessen prescribes three subjects to be chosen from the following list: Philosophy, Classical, Oriental, German, Modern Philology, History, Science of Art, Political Economy, Forestry, Agriculture, Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Mineralogy, Botany, Zoology. Göttingen prescribes two subjects, “which may not be mere branches of one and the same subject.”
Greifswald prescribes that every candidate must be examined in philosophy, also in his principal branch, and the appropriate subordinate branches, according to the following scheme: —
- If Philosophy is the principal subject, the candidate must be examined in all branches of philosophy, and one subject out of the philological-historical field, and one out of the mathematical or scientific fields.
- To Classical Philology belong Greek and Latin Philology and Ancient History. To German Philology, German Language and Literature, and one other historical or linguistic branch. To modern Philology, Romanic and English Philology and one other philological or historical subject. To Linguistics, comparative philology and some branch of ancient or modern Philology. To Oriental Philology, that language to which the candidate has specially devoted himself, with the allied languages of the same system, and in one branch of Classical Philology.
- To History, as principal subject, belong all parts of historical science, and one language.
- To Mathematics belong all branches of Mathematics and Physics.
- To Physics belong Mathematics and Chemistry.
- With Chemistry must be taken Physics, and any one of the descriptive Natural Sciences.
- With the descriptive Natural Sciences, Physics and Chemistry.
- With Geography, Physics, and either Mathematics, Natural Science or History.
- With Politics, History, History of Civilization, and Political Science.
- With Cameralia, Statistics, Political Science, and Industrial Science.
It will be seen that the choice in the subjects is much limited by thus grouping them together. It is significant that the faculty should think it necessary to thus prescribe the combination of subjects.
Halle prescribes three subjects, one of which must be philosophy. Heidelberg gives a list of subjects from which three must be selected by the candidate. In addition to those mentioned in the list of Erlangen, the following may be noted, — paleontology, agriculture, public law, international law, administrative law, statistics, science of administration. It is also prescribed that in case such a subject is taken as Shemitic languages, for example, a thorough knowledge of at least one language will be required, and a general acquaintance with all the languages of the group. It is furthermore provided that, besides the subjects given in this list, parts of them, or branches, or allied sciences, may be chosen as secondary subjects. But in such cases a more thorough knowledge of the subject will be demanded. It will be seen from this that a candidate can practically limit himself to one subject in his examination, and still get his degree. Jena gives a list of seventeen subjects from which a choice of three must be made. The list is similar to that of Erlangen. Königsberg prescribes that the candidate shall be examined chiefly in the subjects to which ho has specially devoted himself, but every professor has the right to put questions in other branches also, particularly philosophy, philology, history, mathematics, and natural sciences. Leipzig requires three subjects, which shall be related to each other, and shall be selected with due regard to the wishes of the candidate. Marburg prescribes philosophy and the subjects allied to the chief subject selected by the candidate. Munich prescribes three subjects, and gives a list of eighteen from which the choice is to be made, but reserves to the faculty the right to accept others, or parts of others, if the candidate wishes it. Münster prescribes four subjects, one of which must be philosophy. If the chief subject is philosophy, the other three may be selected by the candidate, with the restriction that one at least must come from philology or history, and one from mathematics or natural science. If the chief subject is one of the classical languages, the other must be offered also. If German, then history. If a Romanic language, then Latin. If English, then German. If Sanskrit, Latin or German. If history, then Latin. If art, political economy, or related sciences; the choice of the other subjects is free. The choice of the fourth subject is free, but is limited to one of the foregoing subjects. If the chief subject is mathematics, physics or astronomy must be offered. If physics or astronomy, then mathematics. If chemistry, then physics. If one of the descriptive natural sciences, then at least another of these same sciences. The choice of the fourth subject is free. Rostock prescribes three subjects, and gives a list of seventeen from which they must be chosen. It is interesting to note that whereas Rostock gives political science as one of the subjects of three which must be chosen, Heidelberg divides the subject so that one can limit himself to political science. Strasburg prescribes three subjects, and that candidates in classical philology shall be examined in Latin, that is, that language used in the examination, and that all candidates shall be examined in the translation of a Latin author. Tübingen prescribes two subjects only, and faculty may excuse from oral examination. Würzburg prescribes the combinations, any one of which may be chosen for the examination. They closely resemble those given above for Greifswald.
A public disputation or defense of the thesis, and the appended theses, is absolutely required at Berlin after the oral examination. The disputation is to be in Latin, except when the faculty gives permission to use German. Bonn prescribes that among the opponents of the candidate in this public debate there shall be at least one ordinary professor appointed by the faculty for this purpose, and who closes the side opposed to the candidate. Latin must be used in the disputation when the thesis is required in Latin. Erlangen, Leipzig, Freiburg, Giessen, Greifswald, Heidelberg, Jena, Rostock, Strasburg, and Tübingen do not require a public disputation. Göttingen allows the candidate his choice between a public ceremony, to which the public disputation belongs, or a private ceremony in a committee of the faculty, without disputation. Halle requires a public disputation by all who wish to enter a Prussian university as privat docenten. Other candidates may dispense with this ceremony. Kiel requires the candidate to deliver a short lecture on some topic chosen by himself, and make a public defense of his dissertation and appended theses, though the faculty may dispense with the defense of the dissertation. Königsberg, Munich, Münster, Würzburg, require a public disputation. The faculty of Marburg may excuse from the disputation at the request of the candidate.
The graduation ceremony is, at different universities, quite different, and on different occasions, at the same university, depending often, as described above in the case of Göttingen, on the wish of the candidate. It varies from a very solemn and ceremonious act, with a procession of members of the faculty in full academic costume, to the mere handing over to the candidate of his diploma by the Dean of the faculty, in a private room, in the presence of two or three professors.
The degree of Ph. D. is not granted by any of the universities in absentia, except when it is honoris causa. Bonn allows the faculty to grant the doctor’s degree ” without examination, only as a voluntary acknowledgment of excellent services to science. In very exceptional cases it may also be granted to show respect of the faculty for other than scientific services.” Würzburg also provides in the published rules for degrees honoris causa, in case two thirds of the corresponding committee of the faculty agree to it. The rules of the other faculties say nothing of such graduations, but in nearly all of them the degree is granted honoris causa, but, as a rule, only in the case of distinguished services to science.
The rules of Halle prescribe that “whoever wishes the degrees of Master of Arts and Doctor of Philosophy must not only possess that general culture which is necessary to any high degree of scholarship, but must also have pursued with success some branch of science which is represented in the philosophical faculty. The certificate of graduation from a gymnasium or real school testifies to the former, and the dissertation and examination before the faculty to the latter.”
A careful consideration of the foregoing provisions will give one a clear idea of the conditions of the German Ph. D. It is evident that any boy of good abilities and good health, who can go to school from the beginning of his seventh year, can attain to the degrees of Master of Arts and Doctor of Philosophy by the close of his twenty-first year, having divided his time as follows: three years in the primary school, nine years in the gymnasium, and three years in the university. As a matter of fact, owing to the circumstance that the average age of those who graduate from the gymnasium and real school is about nineteen, and that the average student spends much of the time at the university, during the first year, in recreation, thus requiring another year to complete his course, he will not get his degrees before he is twenty-three or four.
When we compare this condition of circumstances with that prevailing in American colleges, most of us will, I am sure, be surprised at the result. If we take any of our leading colleges we shall find that twenty is below the average age at which the classes leave college, and that if the college gives the doctor’s degree on examination, it usually prescribes at least two years’ further study, bringing the lowest age at which this degree is granted to at least twenty-two. The average age of some of the recent graduating classes at Harvard College was twenty-three and one half. Counting two years more as necessary for the degree, candidates would be on the average twenty-five and one half before they would be admitted to the examination. In some of the other colleges, where the average age is at least one or one and one-half years younger, as at the University of Pennsylvania, the age of applicants would still be twenty-three or twenty-four, — the same age as that of the German applicants.
One can also get a pretty clear idea as to the extent and severity of the examinations for the degree. They certainly cannot fairly require more in the way of knowledge than what a man can acquire within three years faithfully devoted to study. This means, of course, very much more in some studies than in others, owing to the place which certain lines of study hold in the preparatory course of study. Thus the gymnasium course is a special preparation for the course in philology, and it is, of course, perfectly fair to require of the candidate in this department a much more extensive knowledge of his subject than in political economy, for example, where all the candidate knows of the subject is what he has acquired in his three years’ course.
Taken all in all, it is pretty certain that it requires more hard work to get the degree of Ph. D. from a good American college, requiring post-graduate residence for two years, than from a German university. Why is it that the latter is considered of more value? This can only be answered after a discussion of the different conditions under which the two degrees are acquired, which would take a lengthy article for itself.
Image Source: Edmund Janes James: Twelfth President of the Economic Association, 1910. American Economic Review, Vol. 34, No. 3 (September 1944).
