Category: Economic History

Columbia College’s freshman course on Contemporary Civilization, a.k.a. “CC”, has been a core element in the undergraduate experience for over a century. This is the first of two posts that provide portions of the third edition of the course syllabus from 1921 that should be of particular interest for economists. The parts of the syllabus that deal with Western economic history and the history of economics from 1400-1870 together with links to all the items referenced cab be found below.

I dare anyone to try just this subset of this 1921 syllabus for a two-semester course required for first year undergraduates. Maybe only try this from the relative safety of a tenured position. 

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Introductory Note

The Faculty of Columbia College determined at its meeting in January, 1919, to discontinue the required courses in History and Philosophy and, beginning in September, 1919, to substitute a course on Contemporary Civilization which should meet five times a week and be required of all Freshmen…

…The Syllabus has been prepared by certain of the instructors of the course who include members of the Departments of Economics, Government, History and Philosophy: Wallace E. Caldwell [History], Harry J. Carman [History], John J. Coss [Philosophy], Irwin Edman [Philosophy], Austin P. Evans [History], Horace Leland Friess [Philosophy], Elmer D. Graper [Politics], Adam Leroy Jones [Philosophy], Benjamin B. Kendrick [History], Sterling Power Lamprecht [Philosophy], Robert Devore Leigh [Politics], Frederick Cecil Mills [Economics], Parker T. Moon [History], Herbert W. Schneider [Philosophy], and William Ernest Weld [Economics].

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SECOND DIVISION
SURVEY OF THE CHARACTERISTICS
OF THE PRESENT AGE

BOOK III. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF CONTEMPORARY CIVILIZATION, 1400-1870

Introduction: The fundamental conceptions of the present age.

                  Man’s nature in its original character remains unchanged from the dawn of history, and nature in its basic resources has not altered greatly. But man’s store of knowledge has increased, and in the western world new conceptions have arisen so important as to be considered new tools which human beings use when they attempt to control their situation. These conceptions will be shown in their development in Book III. They are presented here for the sake of preliminary emphasis.

1. The belief in the value of the scientific study of man and nature — the intellectual revolution.

1. 1. The early emphasis on knowledge as power — Francis Bacon and the Renaissance scientists.
   2. The exact study of specific activities shows the fashion in which men and things behave, and makes possible the limited control of natural forces and human nature.
      1. Newton and the 18th century conception of nature and natural law.
      2. Belief in human progress through a scientific study of man — psychologists, political philosophers, and economists of the 18th century.
   3. The expansion of the method of inquiry to the place of man in nature — development of biology in the 19th century and the theory of evolution.
   4. The application of scientific knowledge to industrial pursuits, and the present “age of applied science.”

1. The new developments in agriculture, the factory system of production, and the era of world trade — the economic revolution.

1. 1. The discovery of the new world and of new routes to the East led to an expansion of commerce, transformed the methods of business, and created a demand for increased manufacture — the commercial revolution.
   2. These changes hastened the decline of the manorial system, the rise of private property in land, and the introduction of new agricultural methods — the agricultural revolution.
   3. The demand for increased manufacture was satisfied by the invention of machinery and the application of science to industry which gave rise to modern “mass production,” the method dominant in industry today, and responsible for many social changes apparent during the past century — the industrial revolution.
   4. These revolutions in commerce, agriculture, and industry tended to link the world together. Products are now manufactured for a world market, and western influence has been extended into every quarter.

1. The participation of adult citizens in their own government — the political revolution.

1. 1. The belief in man’s ability (intellectual revolution) and the changes in his economic life (commercial, industrial, and agricultural revolutions) led to a widening of the group participating in government. The American, French, and 19th century revolutions.
   2. In industrialized lands political problems are now generally approached in term of popular determination through some form of democratic control. Development of political democracy during the 19th century.
   3. With the widening of the group participating in political decisions the sentiments of patriotism and of loyalty to the political group have been strengthened — Nationalism.

1. Comparatively little progress in natural science had been made during mediaeval times.
   Sedgwick and Tyler, Short History of Science, 1-177.

1. 1. Examples of erroneous ideas: the Ptolemaic cosmology, the “four elements,” etc.
   2. Reasons for the backwardness of science.
      1. Lack of instruments.
      2. Reliance upon authority and upon deductive reasoning — scholasticism.
      3. Interest deflected from nature to the supernatural and other worldly.

1. From the thirteenth century on increasing attention was paid to scientific observation and experimentation.
   *Hayes, [A Political and Social History of Modern Europe] Vol. I, 177-185, 196-201; Sedgwick & Tyler, 177-304; Descartes, Discourse on Method; Francis Bacon, Novum Organum, The Advancement of Learning, The New Atlantis; H. O. Taylor, Thought and Expression in the Sixteenth Century [Vol. I; Vol. II]; J. Dewey, Reconstruction in Philosophy, 28-52.

1. 1. Decline of scholasticism.
   2. Humanism and the revival of ancient learning.
   3. Fresh interest in nature appears.
   4. Travel and explorations on land and sea.
   5. Remarkable discoveries begin the development of the natural sciences.
      1. Astronomy: Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, Newton.
      2. Physics: Galileo, Newton.
   6. Formulation of scientific method.
      1. Experiment and induction advocated by Francis Bacon.
      2. Mathematical analysis advocated by Rene Descartes.

1. The Protestant revolt.
   *Hayes, Vol. I, 167-169; A. C. McGiffert, Protestant Thought before Kant, 9-20; Taylor [Vol. I; Vol. II].

1. 1. Protestantism, though not in sympathy with the new science nor inspired by a faith in man’s ability, weakened the authority of the mediaeval tradition over the mind.
   2. Protestantism and the religious controversies which it engendered gave rise to educational movements of an extensive character.
   3. Protestantism championed by many secular princes gave added prestige and power to these governments — “religion nationalized.”

1. The rise of national culture traditions in western Europe.
   *Hayes, Vol. I, 185-196; Robinson, History of Western Europe, 329-347; F. S. Marvin, The Living Past, 140-193, Taylor [Vol. I; Vol. II].

1. 1. Decline of mediaeval Latin and the development of the vernaculars.
   2. Rise of national literatures — Dante, Cervantes, Molière, Luther, Shakespeare.
   3. Painting, sculpture, and architecture — DaVinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, Rubens, Velasquez, Rembrandt, Dürer, Wren.
   4. The cultural unity of Europe gives way to a group of competing nations, each with its own language, and in many cases with its own government.

2. The Commercial Revolution.

1. Definition.
   1. It may be defined as that expansive movement by which commerce radiated from Europe as a center to all parts of the world.
   2. This process, which covers the period of geographical discovery and colonization, began in the middle of the 15th century and continued for about 300 years. It may be regarded as the first phase of the Europeanization of the world.
      *Map study — Appendix, II, 1 (page 120).

1. Influence of Geography on Civilization — Appendix I.
   1. River valleys as highways of migration and commerce.
   2. Mountains, deserts and oceans as barriers.
   3. Social consequences.

1. Development of mediaeval trade.
   *Hayes, Vol. I, 36-39, 43-49; *Cheyney, Industrial and Social History of England, 75-94.
   1. Rise of fairs, cross-road markets, towns at trade-junctions.
   2. Organizations of commerce largely on a municipal basis.
      1. The merchant guild.
      2. The staple town.
      3. Social consequences.
   3. Trade and trade-routes.
      1. Trade with the East.
         1. Influence of the Crusades in stimulating Eastern trade.
         2. Rôle of the Italian cities.
         3. Influence of geography in determining routes.
      2. Trade in Europe.
         1. Commodities.
         2. Advantageous situation of Italian, German, Dutch and Flemish cities.

1. European exploration and commercial expansion.
   *Hayes, Vol. I, 49-69; Wallas, The Great Society, 3-19.
   1. Factors which combined to produce this exploration and expansion.
      1. Intellectual curiosity,
      2. Desire of nations on Atlantic seaboard to share in profitable trade with the East.
      3. Religious zeal.
      4. Improvements in the art of navigation.
   2. Consequences.
      1. Decline of Italian and German city-states; rise of national states of Western Europe; impetus to nationalism and dynastic aggrandizement.
      2. New commercial methods: chartered companies; mercantilism; banking and credit.
      3. Stimulation of economic life in general; hence, increased wealth,
      4. Growth of the trading class, the bourgeoisie.
      5. Enrichment and expansion of European culture; progress of science.
      6. Colonization.
      7. Slavery and the slave-trade.
      8. New commodities of commerce; growing interdependence of all parts of world.
      9. Changes in mental outlook, due to increased facilities for communication and broadening of interests.
2. Remarkable growth of commerce during the 18th century.
   *Hayes, Vol. I, 399-403; Ogg, Economic Development of Modern Europe, 73-87.
   1. Continuation of effects of exploration and commercial expansion.
   2. The rising commercial and maritime power of England.
   3. Restrictions and handicaps.
      1. Mercantilism.
      2. Internal tariff and customs barriers.
      3. Wars.
      4. Lack of rapid and cheap transportation.
   4. [The movement to emancipate commerce.]
      1. The Physiocrats (see 5.C.b.i below).
      2. Adam Smith (see 5.C.b.ii below).

3. The Agricultural Revolution.

1. Relation to the Industrial Revolution.
   1. The Agricultural Revolution occurred almost simultaneously with the Industrial Revolution; the former did for agriculture what the latter did for industry.
   2. The Agricultural Revolution had begun before the Industrial Revolution, and helped to render the latter possible by releasing labor from the land and by providing an increased supply of food and raw materials.
   3. The Industrial Revolution, in turn, promoted the Agricultural Revolution by providing capital and machinery for scientific farming.
2. Definition.
   1. In general, by the Agricultural Revolution is meant the destruction of the manorial system of agriculture and the introduction of
      1. Modern ideas of absolute ownership of land: Freehold.
      2. Scientific methods of tillage and breeding.
      3. Specialized production for market rather than for local consumption.
   2. Aside from these general features, the Agricultural Revolution meant different things in different parts of Europe (see below).
   3. The Agricultural Revolution might be regarded as a long process, continuing from the 13th to the 19th centuries, and culminating in a series of rapid, revolutionary changes in the period 1760-1845.
3. General aspects of mediaeval agriculture.
   *Hayes, Vol. I, 28-36, 395-399; *Ogg, Economic Development of Modern Europe, 18-44; Cheyney, 31-52, 136-147.
   1. Majority of the population rural.
   2. Organization of agriculture, chiefly manorial.
      1. Significant features of the manorial system (contrast with modern conditions).
         1. Social inequality: serfdom and aristocracy.
         2. Attachment of peasant to soil.
         3. Burdensome obligations of serf.
         4. Inefficiency and self-sufficiency.
   3. Methods.
      1. Persistence of wasteful primitive methods:
         1. The three-field system.
         2. Crudity of implements.
         3. Unscientific cattle-raising.
         4. Connection between primitive methods and manorial organization.
   4. Social consequences of agricultural conditions.
      1. Economic necessity of large rural population.
      2. Relatively low standards of comfort.
      3. Intellectual isolation and conservatism of economically self-sufficient rural Communities.
      4. Lack of effective impetus to invention, enterprise, and improvement.
      5. Discontent of peasantry.
4. The agricultural transformation.
   *Ogg, Economic Development of Modern Europe, 37-44, 117-132, 187-188.
   1. The abolition of serfdom.
      1. In England it had gradually disappeared by 1700.
      2. In France during French Revolution (see p. 33 ff. of syllabus).
      3. In other countries subsequently: Prussia, 1807; Austria, 1848; Russia, 1861, etc.
      4. Manorial system and serfdom never widely or firmly established in the United States.
         Becker, The United States, an Experiment in Democracy, 145-185.
         1. Prevalence of freehold tenures.
         2. Abundance of unoccupied land.
         3. Influence of these economic conditions in promoting spirit of democracy.
   2. Breakdown and partial disappearance of the manorial system.
      1. In England.
         1. Decline of serfdom: contractual labor.
         2. Rapid progress of enclosure.
            1. Increased profitableness of arable farming, due to
               1. Rise of industrialism.
               2. Growth of population.
               3. Enlarged demands for foodstuffs.
               4. Improved transportation.
            2. Ease of obtaining special legislation necessary for enclosures. Parliament dominated by landlords.
            3. Advocacy of enclosures by economists, notably Adam Smith.
            4. Methods by which enclosures were effected.
            5. Approximate area enclosed.
            6. Social consequences.
               1. Decline of the class of small holders, and concentration of landownership in hands of a relatively small class.
               2. Widespread public discontent.
               3. Shift in population from country to town and city. (cf. §4. Industrial Revolution below, p. 28 of syllabus.)
               4. Possibility of introducing new agricultural methods on large scale.
      2. On continent breaking up great estates and increase of small holdings.
         1. Peasant-proprietorship.
         2. Metayage as in France.
         3. Exceptions in East Prussia, Sweden and some other countries.
   3. Improvement of agricultural technique.
      1. Stimulated by
         1. Steady increase in prices of agricultural produce, due to economic and to artificial causes (Corn Laws).
         2. Industrial Revolution.
         3. Napoleonic Wars.
         4. Work of scientific men, inventors, agricultural societies, and “gentlemen farmers.”
      2. Scientific rotation of crops.
      3. Great advance in art of stock-breeding.
      4. Introduction and improvement of agricultural machinery.
      5. Improved methods of fertilization.
      6. Drainage.
   4. Application of capital to agricultural enterprise for
      1. Improvement of soil: fertilization and tillage.
      2. Experimentation with new crops and with fancy stock.
      3. Purchase of machinery.
      4. Development of cooperation and agricultural credit institutions.

4. The Industrial Revolution.

Probably no other event has so profoundly affected the ordinary every-day life of the average man, and, at the same time, exercised so vital an influence in politics and even in the domain of education and culture, as the Industrial Revolution. It is one of the main foundations of Contemporary Civilization. When it occurred, how and why it came about, and how it has affected and is affecting civilization, are questions of first-rate importance for him who would understand present-day civilization.

1. Definition.
   1. As an historical event: the rapid introduction and development of machine-processes, capitalistic organization, and the factory system into certain English industries, notably the textile and metal industries and transportation, in the period, approximately, between 1770 and 1815 or 1830.
   2. As a continuing process:
      1. Continuing substitution of manufacture by complicated machine processes for manufacture by hand and with simple tools.
      2. Ever-expanding utilization of artificial power: water, steam, gas, oil, electricity.
      3. Ever-expanding application of mass-production, standardization, and subdivision of labor.
      4. Continuous growth of factory system and of capitalistic organization.
      5. Introduction and development of these features of modern industry in other countries besides England: United States since about 1800, in Western Europe since about 1815, in Eastern Europe since about 1850, in Japan since about 1870. The Industrial Revolution still in its infancy in China, India, etc.

1. Industry prior to 1770.
   *Hayes, Vol. I, 40-42; *Ogg, Economic Development of Modern Europe, 45-64

1. 1. General aspects of medieval industry.
      1. Its relatively small place in economic life.
      2. Lack of machinery and of applied science.
      3. The handicraft system and the craft guilds.
      4. Inter-relation of agriculture and manufacturing.
   2. Gradual decline of the craft guilds; reasons for decline.
   3. Rise of the “domestic system.”
      1. Definition of domestic system.
      2. Conditions favorable to its growth: increase of capital, expansion of markets and of commerce, development of industrial technique, growth of population.
   4. General growth of industry in eighteenth century.
   5. Social consequences.
      1. Rise of industrial classes.
      2. Tendency toward substitution of modern wage-system for medieval guild-system.
      3. Rise of competition and economic individualism (see below, p. 31).

1. Conditions favorable to the Industrial Revolution in England. Map Study — Appendix II, 2. (p. 123).
   *Hayes, Vol. I, 67-69; Ogg, Economic Development of Modern Europe, 133-135.

1. 1. Prosperous and progressive condition of English industry and commerce in the 18th century.
      1. England the “nation of shopkeepers.”
      2. Thriving commerce; colonial markets; necessity of expanding markets as
         encouragement to expanding industry.
      3. England less embarrassed by wars than Continental nations.
      4. English industries relatively free from regulation.
      5. Abundance of capital; capitalistic system and factories beginning to develop even before the epoch of great inventions.
   2. Possession of basic raw materials: iron, coal, wool; possession of water-power; ease of importing cotton.
   3. Climatic conditions favorable to textile manufacture.
   4. Agricultural progress, releasing cheap labor for industry, and making it more nearly possible to feed a large industrial population. See above §3.D. (p. 27 of syllabus).

1. The great mechanical inventions.
   *Hayes, Vol. II, 69-75; Ogg, Economic Development of Modern Europe, 135-145; Cheyney, 199-212.

1. 1. Conditions necessary for successful mechanical inventions.
      1. Economic demand.
      2. Sufficiently advanced state of skill in handicrafts to make construction of machines possible.
      3. Application of scientific knowledge.
   2. Inventions in the textile industry.
      1. Hargreaves and the Jenny.
      2. Arkwright’s water-frame.
      3. Crompton’s mule.
      4. Cartwright’s loom.
      5. Whitney’s cotton gin.
   3. The steam-engine and its applications.
      1. Fore-runners of James Watt.
      2. Watt’s achievements.
      3. Application to spinning-mule and to loom.
      4. Use in mining and metallurgy.
      5. The steamboat.
      6. The locomotive.
      7. The steam printing-press.
   4. Other industries rapidly revolutionized by inventions and by application of steam-power.

1. Capitalism and the factory system.
   *Hayes, Vol. II, 77-80; *Ogg, Economic Development of Modern Europe, 145-147.

1. 1. Effect of the inventions in promoting the factory system and capitalistic control of industry.
      1. Expense of machines.
      2. Necessity of large factories.
      3. Necessity of large-scale buying and selling.
      4. Subdivision of labor.
      5. Utilization of cheap and unskilled labor.
   2. Sir Richard Arkwright as an early type of the factory-owner
   3. Rapid growth of the factory system.

1. Significant consequences of the Industrial Revolution.
   *Hayes, Vol. II, 75-77. 80-97; Ogg, Economic Development of Modern Europe, 147-152.

1. 1. Expansion of commerce and industry, hence, increase of wealth and gradual
      rise of standard of living.
   2. Rapid growth and urban concentration of population.
   3. Rise of acute social problems.
      1. Child labor.
      2. Employment of women.
      3. Prevalence of poverty, vice, and disease among factory and mine workers.
      4. Industrial over-production, crises, and unemployment.
      5. Labor agitation; destruction of machines by workingmen; trade-unionism; discontent of “proletariat.”
      6. Growth of slums in cities.
   4. Temporary triumph of “economic individualism” or laissez-faire.
      1. The philosophy of economic individualism.
      2. Gradual emancipation of industry and commerce from governmental restrictions and oppressive tariffs.
      3. Unwillingness of factory-owners in first half of 19th century to permit trade-unionism or to sanction labor-legislation.
      4. Early protests against economic individualism: Robert Owen, Saint-Simon, Fourier, Louis Blanc.
   5. Enrichment and strengthening of bourgeoisie.
      1. Increased numerical and economic power of bourgeoisie.
      2. Demand of bourgeoisie for a voice in the government; hence, tendency of Industrial Revolution universally to stimulate demand for representative government.
      3. Tendency of bourgeoisie to use political power for their own economic interests; illustrations from English and French history, 1830-1848.
   6. Progress of science and education.
      1. Larger leisure class.
      2. Cheap printing: newspapers and books no longer the rich man’s luxury.
      3. Prestige of science, enhanced by economic utility of applied science.
      4. Improved means of communication.
      5. Influence of urbanization.
   7. Greater mobility of civilization; society no longer as static and unchanging as before the Industrial Revolution; spirit of innovation and invention.

5. The development of thought in the 18th century—humanitarianism, rationalism, and romanticism.
*Hayes, Vol. I, 414-426; Robinson and Beard, The Development of Modern Europe, Vol. I, 157-182; Thilly, History of Philosophy, 307-391; A. C. McGiffert, Protestant Thought before Kant, Chap. X; J. B. Bury, History of Freedom of Thought, Home University Library, Chap. VI.

1. Continuing development of the natural sciences. Sedgwick and Tyler, 304-323.

1. 1. Experimentation in electricity, chemistry, biology, medicine, and geography.
   2. Popularity of science in the 18th century; patronage by governments, formation of scientific societies, the Encyclopedia.

1. The conception of nature and of natural law.
   J. Dewey, Reconstruction in Philosophy, 53-76.

1. 1. Tendency to conceive the world of nature as a mechanism — Newton.
   2. This conception applied to theology by the deists — critique of the miraculous as a violation of the laws of nature.
   3. The emergence of atheism — serious concern with the problem of evil. Voltaire, Candide.

1. Man conceived as natural, as acting in accordance with natural laws, and as having natural rights.

1. 1. Application of the mechanistic hypothesis to the psychology of the human mind — Helvetius and Bentham.
   2. Attempt to discover natural laws in economics — rise of the science of political economy.
      H. J. Laski, Political Thought from Locke to Bentham, 290-302; Gide & Rist, History of Economic Doctrines, 1-118; W. A. Dunning, A History of Political Theories from Rousseau to Spencer, 57-65.
      1. Ideas of the physiocrats — Quesnay and Turgot.
         1. The natural order providentially ordained for our happiness by God has three foundations: private property, security, and liberty.
         2. Free trade and free circulation of grain.
         3. Legislation to be reduced to a minimum — laissez faire.
         4. State to be a passive policeman; defend private property, promote education and public works.
      2. Adam Smith developed similar ideas and applied them more broadly to industry and commerce — criticism of the mercantile system. “The Wealth of Nations,” 1776.
   3. Attempt to discover natural laws in politics.
      Laski, 38-55; W. A. Dunning, Political Theories from Luther to Montesquieu, 335—435; [W. A. Dunning,] Political Theories from Rousseau to Spencer, 1-129; Merriam, American Political Theories, 38-176; Montesquieu, Spirit of the Laws [Volume I; Volume II]; Rousseau, Social Contract.
      1. Locke’s political philosophy: the state of nature, the laws of nature, the social contract, the right of revolution.
         S. P. Lamprecht, The Moral and Political Philosophy of John Locke.
      2. Development of Lockian political philosophy in France: Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Rousseau.
      3. Development of Lockian political philosophy in America: Paine, Franklin, Jefferson.
      4. New analyses of government based on historical studies and travels.
         1. Montesquieu, and the separation of governmental powers.
         2. John Adams and James Madison — the faith in a “natural aristocracy.”
   4. The conception of natural rights criticized — Jeremy Bentham.
      W. L. Davidson, Political Thought in England from Bentham to J. S. Mill, 46-113.
      1. Social utility, not nature, the test of human institutions.
      2. This utilitarian theory made the basis of a sweeping criticism of the old ‘ regime,
      3. Far-reaching constructive ideas of Bentham on legislation, administration, jurisprudence, penology, education.
      4. Many of these ideas fruitful in the 19th century.

1. Violent criticism of established institutions as disutile, unnatural, and unreasonable.

1. 1. Criticism of ecclesiastic institutions, “divine right” monarchy, the economic and social systems.
   2. Toleration, and respect for the natural man demanded — humanitarianism.
   3. Confidence in the powers of human reason — rationalism.
   4. Trust in the emotions as naturally good — romanticism.
   5. Belief in progress and the perfectibility of man through education — Helvetius, Rousseau, Condorcet.

Source: Columbia University. Introduction to Contemporary Civilization — A Syllabus, (Third edition, 1921), pp. 23-32.