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Columbia Economic History History of Economics Philosophy Syllabus

Columbia. Excerpt from Contemporary Civilization Syllabus. Economic History, 1921

Columbia College’s freshman course on Contemporary Civilization, a.k.a. “CC”, has been a core element in the undergraduate experience for over a century. This is the first of two posts that provide portions of the third edition of the course syllabus from 1921 that should be of particular interest for economists. The parts of the syllabus that deal with Western economic history and the history of economics from 1400-1870 together with links to all the items referenced cab be found below.

I dare anyone to try just this subset of this 1921 syllabus for a two-semester course required for first year undergraduates. Maybe only try this from the relative safety of a tenured position. 

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Introductory Note

The Faculty of Columbia College determined at its meeting in January, 1919, to discontinue the required courses in History and Philosophy and, beginning in September, 1919, to substitute a course on Contemporary Civilization which should meet five times a week and be required of all Freshmen…

…The Syllabus has been prepared by certain of the instructors of the course who include members of the Departments of Economics, Government, History and Philosophy: Wallace E. Caldwell [History], Harry J. Carman [History], John J. Coss [Philosophy], Irwin Edman [Philosophy], Austin P. Evans [History], Horace Leland Friess [Philosophy], Elmer D. Graper [Politics], Adam Leroy Jones [Philosophy], Benjamin B. Kendrick [History], Sterling Power Lamprecht [Philosophy], Robert Devore Leigh [Politics], Frederick Cecil Mills [Economics], Parker T. Moon [History], Herbert W. Schneider [Philosophy], and William Ernest Weld [Economics].

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SECOND DIVISION
SURVEY OF THE CHARACTERISTICS
OF THE PRESENT AGE

BOOK III. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF CONTEMPORARY CIVILIZATION, 1400-1870

Introduction: The fundamental conceptions of the present age.

                  Man’s nature in its original character remains unchanged from the dawn of history, and nature in its basic resources has not altered greatly. But man’s store of knowledge has increased, and in the western world new conceptions have arisen so important as to be considered new tools which human beings use when they attempt to control their situation. These conceptions will be shown in their development in Book III. They are presented here for the sake of preliminary emphasis.

  1. The belief in the value of the scientific study of man and nature — the intellectual revolution.
    1. The early emphasis on knowledge as power — Francis Bacon and the Renaissance scientists.
    2. The exact study of specific activities shows the fashion in which men and things behave, and makes possible the limited control of natural forces and human nature.
      1. Newton and the 18th century conception of nature and natural law.
      2. Belief in human progress through a scientific study of man — psychologists, political philosophers, and economists of the 18th century.
    3. The expansion of the method of inquiry to the place of man in nature — development of biology in the 19th century and the theory of evolution.
    4. The application of scientific knowledge to industrial pursuits, and the present “age of applied science.”
  1. The new developments in agriculture, the factory system of production, and the era of world trade — the economic revolution.
    1. The discovery of the new world and of new routes to the East led to an expansion of commerce, transformed the methods of business, and created a demand for increased manufacture — the commercial revolution.
    2. These changes hastened the decline of the manorial system, the rise of private property in land, and the introduction of new agricultural methods — the agricultural revolution.
    3. The demand for increased manufacture was satisfied by the invention of machinery and the application of science to industry which gave rise to modern “mass production,” the method dominant in industry today, and responsible for many social changes apparent during the past century — the industrial revolution.
    4. These revolutions in commerce, agriculture, and industry tended to link the world together. Products are now manufactured for a world market, and western influence has been extended into every quarter.
  1. The participation of adult citizens in their own government — the political revolution.
    1. The belief in man’s ability (intellectual revolution) and the changes in his economic life (commercial, industrial, and agricultural revolutions) led to a widening of the group participating in government. The American, French, and 19th century revolutions.
    2. In industrialized lands political problems are now generally approached in term of popular determination through some form of democratic control. Development of political democracy during the 19th century.
    3. With the widening of the group participating in political decisions the sentiments of patriotism and of loyalty to the political group have been strengthened — Nationalism.
1. The intellectual outlook of the Renaissance— the birth of modern science, and the rise of national cultural traditions in Western Europe.
  1. Comparatively little progress in natural science had been made during mediaeval times.
    1. Examples of erroneous ideas: the Ptolemaic cosmology, the “four elements,” etc.
    2. Reasons for the backwardness of science.
      1. Lack of instruments.
      2. Reliance upon authority and upon deductive reasoning — scholasticism.
      3. Interest deflected from nature to the supernatural and other worldly.
  1. From the thirteenth century on increasing attention was paid to scientific observation and experimentation.
    1. Decline of scholasticism.
    2. Humanism and the revival of ancient learning.
    3. Fresh interest in nature appears.
    4. Travel and explorations on land and sea.
    5. Remarkable discoveries begin the development of the natural sciences.
      1. Astronomy: Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, Newton.
      2. Physics: Galileo, Newton.
    6. Formulation of scientific method.
      1. Experiment and induction advocated by Francis Bacon.
      2. Mathematical analysis advocated by Rene Descartes.
  1. The Protestant revolt.
    *Hayes, Vol. I, 167-169; A. C. McGiffert, Protestant Thought before Kant, 9-20; Taylor [Vol. I; Vol. II].
    1. Protestantism, though not in sympathy with the new science nor inspired by a faith in man’s ability, weakened the authority of the mediaeval tradition over the mind.
    2. Protestantism and the religious controversies which it engendered gave rise to educational movements of an extensive character.
    3. Protestantism championed by many secular princes gave added prestige and power to these governments — “religion nationalized.”
  1. The rise of national culture traditions in western Europe.
    *Hayes, Vol. I, 185-196; Robinson, History of Western Europe, 329-347; F. S. Marvin, The Living Past, 140-193, Taylor [Vol. I; Vol. II].
    1. Decline of mediaeval Latin and the development of the vernaculars.
    2. Rise of national literatures — Dante, Cervantes, Molière, Luther, Shakespeare.
    3. Painting, sculpture, and architecture — DaVinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, Rubens, Velasquez, Rembrandt, Dürer, Wren.
    4. The cultural unity of Europe gives way to a group of competing nations, each with its own language, and in many cases with its own government.

2. The Commercial Revolution.

  1. Definition.
    1. It may be defined as that expansive movement by which commerce radiated from Europe as a center to all parts of the world.
    2. This process, which covers the period of geographical discovery and colonization, began in the middle of the 15th century and continued for about 300 years. It may be regarded as the first phase of the Europeanization of the world.
      *Map study — Appendix, II, 1 (page 120).
  1. Influence of Geography on Civilization — Appendix I.
    1. River valleys as highways of migration and commerce.
    2. Mountains, deserts and oceans as barriers.
    3. Social consequences.
  1. Development of mediaeval trade.
    *Hayes, Vol. I, 36-39, 43-49; *Cheyney, Industrial and Social History of England, 75-94.

    1. Rise of fairs, cross-road markets, towns at trade-junctions.
    2. Organizations of commerce largely on a municipal basis.
      1. The merchant guild.
      2. The staple town.
      3. Social consequences.
    3. Trade and trade-routes.
      1. Trade with the East.
        1. Influence of the Crusades in stimulating Eastern trade.
        2. Rôle of the Italian cities.
        3. Influence of geography in determining routes.
      2. Trade in Europe.
        1. Commodities.
        2. Advantageous situation of Italian, German, Dutch and Flemish cities.
  1. European exploration and commercial expansion.
    *Hayes, Vol. I, 49-69; Wallas, The Great Society, 3-19.

    1. Factors which combined to produce this exploration and expansion.
      1. Intellectual curiosity,
      2. Desire of nations on Atlantic seaboard to share in profitable trade with the East.
      3. Religious zeal.
      4. Improvements in the art of navigation.
    2. Consequences.
      1. Decline of Italian and German city-states; rise of national states of Western Europe; impetus to nationalism and dynastic aggrandizement.
      2. New commercial methods: chartered companies; mercantilism; banking and credit.
      3. Stimulation of economic life in general; hence, increased wealth,
      4. Growth of the trading class, the bourgeoisie.
      5. Enrichment and expansion of European culture; progress of science.
      6. Colonization.
      7. Slavery and the slave-trade.
      8. New commodities of commerce; growing interdependence of all parts of world.
      9. Changes in mental outlook, due to increased facilities for communication and broadening of interests.
  2. Remarkable growth of commerce during the 18th century.
    *Hayes, Vol. I, 399-403; Ogg, Economic Development of Modern Europe, 73-87.

    1. Continuation of effects of exploration and commercial expansion.
    2. The rising commercial and maritime power of England.
    3. Restrictions and handicaps.
      1. Mercantilism.
      2. Internal tariff and customs barriers.
      3. Wars.
      4. Lack of rapid and cheap transportation.
    4. [The movement to emancipate commerce.]
      1. The Physiocrats (see 5.C.b.i below).
      2. Adam Smith (see 5.C.b.ii below).

3. The Agricultural Revolution.

  1. Relation to the Industrial Revolution.
    1. The Agricultural Revolution occurred almost simultaneously with the Industrial Revolution; the former did for agriculture what the latter did for industry.
    2. The Agricultural Revolution had begun before the Industrial Revolution, and helped to render the latter possible by releasing labor from the land and by providing an increased supply of food and raw materials.
    3. The Industrial Revolution, in turn, promoted the Agricultural Revolution by providing capital and machinery for scientific farming.
  2. Definition.
    1. In general, by the Agricultural Revolution is meant the destruction of the manorial system of agriculture and the introduction of
      1. Modern ideas of absolute ownership of land: Freehold.
      2. Scientific methods of tillage and breeding.
      3. Specialized production for market rather than for local consumption.
    2. Aside from these general features, the Agricultural Revolution meant different things in different parts of Europe (see below).
    3. The Agricultural Revolution might be regarded as a long process, continuing from the 13th to the 19th centuries, and culminating in a series of rapid, revolutionary changes in the period 1760-1845.
  3. General aspects of mediaeval agriculture.
    *Hayes, Vol. I, 28-36, 395-399; *Ogg, Economic Development of Modern Europe, 18-44; Cheyney, 31-52, 136-147.

    1. Majority of the population rural.
    2. Organization of agriculture, chiefly manorial.
      1. Significant features of the manorial system (contrast with modern conditions).
        1. Social inequality: serfdom and aristocracy.
        2. Attachment of peasant to soil.
        3. Burdensome obligations of serf.
        4. Inefficiency and self-sufficiency.
    3. Methods.
      1. Persistence of wasteful primitive methods:
        1. The three-field system.
        2. Crudity of implements.
        3. Unscientific cattle-raising.
        4. Connection between primitive methods and manorial organization.
    4. Social consequences of agricultural conditions.
      1. Economic necessity of large rural population.
      2. Relatively low standards of comfort.
      3. Intellectual isolation and conservatism of economically self-sufficient rural Communities.
      4. Lack of effective impetus to invention, enterprise, and improvement.
      5. Discontent of peasantry.
  4. The agricultural transformation.
    *Ogg, Economic Development of Modern Europe, 37-44, 117-132, 187-188.

    1. The abolition of serfdom.
      1. In England it had gradually disappeared by 1700.
      2. In France during French Revolution (see p. 33 ff. of syllabus).
      3. In other countries subsequently: Prussia, 1807; Austria, 1848; Russia, 1861, etc.
      4. Manorial system and serfdom never widely or firmly established in the United States.
        Becker, The United States, an Experiment in Democracy, 145-185.

        1. Prevalence of freehold tenures.
        2. Abundance of unoccupied land.
        3. Influence of these economic conditions in promoting spirit of democracy.
    2. Breakdown and partial disappearance of the manorial system.
      1. In England.
        1. Decline of serfdom: contractual labor.
        2. Rapid progress of enclosure.
          1. Increased profitableness of arable farming, due to
            1. Rise of industrialism.
            2. Growth of population.
            3. Enlarged demands for foodstuffs.
            4. Improved transportation.
          2. Ease of obtaining special legislation necessary for enclosures. Parliament dominated by landlords.
          3. Advocacy of enclosures by economists, notably Adam Smith.
          4. Methods by which enclosures were effected.
          5. Approximate area enclosed.
          6. Social consequences.
            1. Decline of the class of small holders, and concentration of landownership in hands of a relatively small class.
            2. Widespread public discontent.
            3. Shift in population from country to town and city. (cf. §4. Industrial Revolution below, p. 28 of syllabus.)
            4. Possibility of introducing new agricultural methods on large scale.
      2. On continent breaking up great estates and increase of small holdings.
        1. Peasant-proprietorship.
        2. Metayage as in France.
        3. Exceptions in East Prussia, Sweden and some other countries.
    3. Improvement of agricultural technique.
      1. Stimulated by
        1. Steady increase in prices of agricultural produce, due to economic and to artificial causes (Corn Laws).
        2. Industrial Revolution.
        3. Napoleonic Wars.
        4. Work of scientific men, inventors, agricultural societies, and “gentlemen farmers.”
      2. Scientific rotation of crops.
      3. Great advance in art of stock-breeding.
      4. Introduction and improvement of agricultural machinery.
      5. Improved methods of fertilization.
      6. Drainage.
    4. Application of capital to agricultural enterprise for
      1. Improvement of soil: fertilization and tillage.
      2. Experimentation with new crops and with fancy stock.
      3. Purchase of machinery.
      4. Development of cooperation and agricultural credit institutions.

4. The Industrial Revolution.

Probably no other event has so profoundly affected the ordinary every-day life of the average man, and, at the same time, exercised so vital an influence in politics and even in the domain of education and culture, as the Industrial Revolution. It is one of the main foundations of Contemporary Civilization. When it occurred, how and why it came about, and how it has affected and is affecting civilization, are questions of first-rate importance for him who would understand present-day civilization.

  1. Definition.
    1. As an historical event: the rapid introduction and development of machine-processes, capitalistic organization, and the factory system into certain English industries, notably the textile and metal industries and transportation, in the period, approximately, between 1770 and 1815 or 1830.
    2. As a continuing process:
      1. Continuing substitution of manufacture by complicated machine processes for manufacture by hand and with simple tools.
      2. Ever-expanding utilization of artificial power: water, steam, gas, oil, electricity.
      3. Ever-expanding application of mass-production, standardization, and subdivision of labor.
      4. Continuous growth of factory system and of capitalistic organization.
      5. Introduction and development of these features of modern industry in other countries besides England: United States since about 1800, in Western Europe since about 1815, in Eastern Europe since about 1850, in Japan since about 1870. The Industrial Revolution still in its infancy in China, India, etc.
  1. Industry prior to 1770.
    *Hayes, Vol. I, 40-42; *Ogg, Economic Development of Modern Europe, 45-64
    1. General aspects of medieval industry.
      1. Its relatively small place in economic life.
      2. Lack of machinery and of applied science.
      3. The handicraft system and the craft guilds.
      4. Inter-relation of agriculture and manufacturing.
    2. Gradual decline of the craft guilds; reasons for decline.
    3. Rise of the “domestic system.”
      1. Definition of domestic system.
      2. Conditions favorable to its growth: increase of capital, expansion of markets and of commerce, development of industrial technique, growth of population.
    4. General growth of industry in eighteenth century.
    5. Social consequences.
      1. Rise of industrial classes.
      2. Tendency toward substitution of modern wage-system for medieval guild-system.
      3. Rise of competition and economic individualism (see below, p. 31).
  1. Conditions favorable to the Industrial Revolution in England. Map Study — Appendix II, 2. (p. 123).
    *Hayes, Vol. I, 67-69; Ogg, Economic Development of Modern Europe, 133-135.
    1. Prosperous and progressive condition of English industry and commerce in the 18th century.
      1. England the “nation of shopkeepers.”
      2. Thriving commerce; colonial markets; necessity of expanding markets as
        encouragement to expanding industry.
      3. England less embarrassed by wars than Continental nations.
      4. English industries relatively free from regulation.
      5. Abundance of capital; capitalistic system and factories beginning to develop even before the epoch of great inventions.
    2. Possession of basic raw materials: iron, coal, wool; possession of water-power; ease of importing cotton.
    3. Climatic conditions favorable to textile manufacture.
    4. Agricultural progress, releasing cheap labor for industry, and making it more nearly possible to feed a large industrial population. See above §3.D. (p. 27 of syllabus).
  1. The great mechanical inventions.
    *Hayes, Vol. II, 69-75; Ogg, Economic Development of Modern Europe, 135-145; Cheyney, 199-212.
    1. Conditions necessary for successful mechanical inventions.
      1. Economic demand.
      2. Sufficiently advanced state of skill in handicrafts to make construction of machines possible.
      3. Application of scientific knowledge.
    2. Inventions in the textile industry.
      1. Hargreaves and the Jenny.
      2. Arkwright’s water-frame.
      3. Crompton’s mule.
      4. Cartwright’s loom.
      5. Whitney’s cotton gin.
    3. The steam-engine and its applications.
      1. Fore-runners of James Watt.
      2. Watt’s achievements.
      3. Application to spinning-mule and to loom.
      4. Use in mining and metallurgy.
      5. The steamboat.
      6. The locomotive.
      7. The steam printing-press.
    4. Other industries rapidly revolutionized by inventions and by application of steam-power.
  1. Capitalism and the factory system.
    *Hayes, Vol. II, 77-80; *Ogg, Economic Development of Modern Europe, 145-147.
    1. Effect of the inventions in promoting the factory system and capitalistic control of industry.
      1. Expense of machines.
      2. Necessity of large factories.
      3. Necessity of large-scale buying and selling.
      4. Subdivision of labor.
      5. Utilization of cheap and unskilled labor.
    2. Sir Richard Arkwright as an early type of the factory-owner
    3. Rapid growth of the factory system.
  1. Significant consequences of the Industrial Revolution.
    *Hayes, Vol. II, 75-77. 80-97; Ogg, Economic Development of Modern Europe, 147-152.
    1. Expansion of commerce and industry, hence, increase of wealth and gradual
      rise of standard of living.
    2. Rapid growth and urban concentration of population.
    3. Rise of acute social problems.
      1. Child labor.
      2. Employment of women.
      3. Prevalence of poverty, vice, and disease among factory and mine workers.
      4. Industrial over-production, crises, and unemployment.
      5. Labor agitation; destruction of machines by workingmen; trade-unionism; discontent of “proletariat.”
      6. Growth of slums in cities.
    4. Temporary triumph of “economic individualism” or laissez-faire.
      1. The philosophy of economic individualism.
      2. Gradual emancipation of industry and commerce from governmental restrictions and oppressive tariffs.
      3. Unwillingness of factory-owners in first half of 19th century to permit trade-unionism or to sanction labor-legislation.
      4. Early protests against economic individualism: Robert Owen, Saint-Simon, Fourier, Louis Blanc.
    5. Enrichment and strengthening of bourgeoisie.
      1. Increased numerical and economic power of bourgeoisie.
      2. Demand of bourgeoisie for a voice in the government; hence, tendency of Industrial Revolution universally to stimulate demand for representative government.
      3. Tendency of bourgeoisie to use political power for their own economic interests; illustrations from English and French history, 1830-1848.
    6. Progress of science and education.
      1. Larger leisure class.
      2. Cheap printing: newspapers and books no longer the rich man’s luxury.
      3. Prestige of science, enhanced by economic utility of applied science.
      4. Improved means of communication.
      5. Influence of urbanization.
    7. Greater mobility of civilization; society no longer as static and unchanging as before the Industrial Revolution; spirit of innovation and invention.

5. The development of thought in the 18th century—humanitarianism, rationalism, and romanticism.
*Hayes, Vol. I, 414-426; Robinson and Beard, The Development of Modern Europe, Vol. I, 157-182; Thilly, History of Philosophy, 307-391; A. C. McGiffert, Protestant Thought before Kant, Chap. X; J. B. Bury, History of Freedom of Thought, Home University Library, Chap. VI.

  1. Continuing development of the natural sciences. Sedgwick and Tyler, 304-323.
    1. Experimentation in electricity, chemistry, biology, medicine, and geography.
    2. Popularity of science in the 18th century; patronage by governments, formation of scientific societies, the Encyclopedia.
  1. The conception of nature and of natural law.
    J. Dewey, Reconstruction in Philosophy, 53-76.
    1. Tendency to conceive the world of nature as a mechanism — Newton.
    2. This conception applied to theology by the deists — critique of the miraculous as a violation of the laws of nature.
    3. The emergence of atheism — serious concern with the problem of evil. Voltaire, Candide.
  1. Man conceived as natural, as acting in accordance with natural laws, and as having natural rights.
    1. Application of the mechanistic hypothesis to the psychology of the human mind — Helvetius and Bentham.
    2. Attempt to discover natural laws in economics — rise of the science of political economy.
      H. J. Laski, Political Thought from Locke to Bentham, 290-302; Gide & Rist, History of Economic Doctrines, 1-118; W. A. Dunning, A History of Political Theories from Rousseau to Spencer, 57-65.

      1. Ideas of the physiocrats — Quesnay and Turgot.
        1. The natural order providentially ordained for our happiness by God has three foundations: private property, security, and liberty.
        2. Free trade and free circulation of grain.
        3. Legislation to be reduced to a minimum — laissez faire.
        4. State to be a passive policeman; defend private property, promote education and public works.
      2. Adam Smith developed similar ideas and applied them more broadly to industry and commerce — criticism of the mercantile system. “The Wealth of Nations,” 1776.
    3. Attempt to discover natural laws in politics.
      Laski, 38-55; W. A. Dunning, Political Theories from Luther to Montesquieu, 335—435; [W. A. Dunning,] Political Theories from Rousseau to Spencer, 1-129; Merriam, American Political Theories, 38-176; Montesquieu, Spirit of the Laws [Volume I; Volume II]; Rousseau, Social Contract.

      1. Locke’s political philosophy: the state of nature, the laws of nature, the social contract, the right of revolution.
        S. P. Lamprecht, The Moral and Political Philosophy of John Locke.
      2. Development of Lockian political philosophy in France: Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Rousseau.
      3. Development of Lockian political philosophy in America: Paine, Franklin, Jefferson.
      4. New analyses of government based on historical studies and travels.
        1. Montesquieu, and the separation of governmental powers.
        2. John Adams and James Madison — the faith in a “natural aristocracy.”
    4. The conception of natural rights criticized — Jeremy Bentham.
      W. L. Davidson, Political Thought in England from Bentham to J. S. Mill, 46-113.

      1. Social utility, not nature, the test of human institutions.
      2. This utilitarian theory made the basis of a sweeping criticism of the old ‘ regime,
      3. Far-reaching constructive ideas of Bentham on legislation, administration, jurisprudence, penology, education.
      4. Many of these ideas fruitful in the 19th century.
  1. Violent criticism of established institutions as disutile, unnatural, and unreasonable.
    1. Criticism of ecclesiastic institutions, “divine right” monarchy, the economic and social systems.
    2. Toleration, and respect for the natural man demanded — humanitarianism.
    3. Confidence in the powers of human reason — rationalism.
    4. Trust in the emotions as naturally good — romanticism.
    5. Belief in progress and the perfectibility of man through education — Helvetius, Rousseau, Condorcet.

Source: Columbia University. Introduction to Contemporary Civilization — A Syllabus, (Third edition, 1921), pp. 23-32.

 

Categories
Exam Questions Harvard Philosophy Socialism

Harvard. Final examination for Ethics of the Social Questions. Peabody, 1905-1906

 

 

In 1905-06 Francis Greenwood Peabody’s popular course on the ethics of the social questions was listed for the first time as one of the course offerings in a new sub-departmental unit “Social Ethics” within the Philosophy Department. In previous years the course was listed as “Philosophy 5”. It was a relatively popular field chosen for economics Ph.D. general examinations.

More about Professor Peabody can be found in the earlier post for 1902-03 together with the final examination questions from that year. Here the course description and exam from 1904-05. Readings and final exam for social ethics in 1906-07.

A fully linked transcription of Peabody’s own short bibliography of social ethics published in 1910 is also of interest.

Note: the items cited in the exam are found in the original printed exam. Links to the corresponding passages have been added.

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A Peek into Likely Course Content 

Cf. Francis Greenwood Peabody’s The Approach to the Social Question (New York: Macmillan, 1912). “The substance of this volume was given as the Earle Lectures at the Pacific Theological Seminary in 1907.”

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Course Enrollment
1905-06

Social Ethics 1 2hf. Professor Peabody and Dr. Rogers. — Ethics of the Social Questions. The problems of Poor-Relief, the Family, Temperance, and various phases of the Labor Question, in the light of ethical theory. Lectures, special researches, and prescribed reading. Half-course (second half-year). Tu., Th., Sat., at 10.

Total 165: 5 Graduates, 24 Seniors, 59 Juniors, 50 Sophomores, 2 Freshmen, 11 Divinity, 14 Others.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College, 1905-1906, p. 75.

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SOCIAL ETHICS 12
Year-end Exam, 1905-06

This paper should be considered as a whole. The time should not be exhausted in answering a few questions, but such limits should be given to each answer as will permit the answering of all the questions in the time assigned.

  1. The place in the ethics of industry of :—
    The Civic Federation.
    Mundella.
    Conseils de Prud’hommes.
    Employers’ Associations. (Adams and Sumner, page 279.)
  2. The Social-Democratic Party in Germany; its history and principles.
  3. Economic and ethical criticisms on the programme of Revolutionary Socialism.
  4. “The labor movement in America already exhibits a manifest tendency in the same direction [towards organized socialism] in which it moves in older countries.” (Sombart, Sozialismus und sozialistische Bewegung, s. 249.) How far is this judgment justified by the history of Collectivism, and by the present attitude of Tradesunionism [sic], in the United States?
  5. Industrial education, in its relation to child-labor and to economic efficiency. (Lecture of R. A. Woods.)
  6. The methods and policies of labor-organization in the United States. (Adams and Sumner, pages 245 ff.)
  7. “Have the conditions of employment and the material comfort of the working classes really improved since the introduction of the factory system?” (Adams and Sumner, page 502.) The answer of these authors to their own question, and some of the evidence which they cite.
  8. Compare, in their importance for the ethics of industry, the system of profit-sharing and the system of industrial partnership.
  9. “Trade-agreements,” considered in their relations to the rights of the people.
  10. The relation of the drink-habit in the United States to poverty and crime; and the economic forces now operating for temperance, (“The Liquor Problem,” Chapter IV, pages 108-134.)

Source: Harvard University Archives. Harvard University, Examination Papers 1873-1915. Box 8, Bound volume: Examination Papers, 1906-07; Papers Set for Final Examinations in History, Government, Economics,…,Music in Harvard College (June, 1906), p. 59.

Categories
Bibliography Harvard Philosophy Socialism

Harvard. Short Bibliography of Social Ethics for “Serious-minded Students”, Peabody, 1910

In 1910 Harvard published 43 short bibliographies covering “Social Ethics and Allied Subjects”, about half of which were dedicated to particular topics in economics, economic sociology, and social ethics. The project was coordinated by Plummer Professor of Christian Morals, Francis G. Peabody who compiled three of the short bibliographies. 

Peabody regularly taught a course on the Ethics of Social Questions [e.g., 1902-03; 1904-05] so we may presume that most of the items listed below would have been in whole or in part assigned reading.

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About Francis G. Peabody

Links to biographical information previously posted

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Previously posted  Harvard short bibliographies
(1910)

I.2. Economic Theory by Taussig

I.3. Economic History by Gay

I.7. Social Statistics by Ripley

II.3. Taxation by Bullock

IV.5 Economics of Socialism by Carver

IV.6 Socialism and Family/Christian Ethics by McConnell

IV.7. Trade Unionism by Ripley

IV.8. Strikes and Boycotts by Ripley

IV.12 Thrift Institutions by Oliver M. W. Sprague

IV.13. Social Insurance by Foerster

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SOCIAL ETHICS
FRANCIS G. PEABODY

            The sources of instruction in Social Ethics must be sought in the philosophical masterpieces which study the individual in his relation to social order: Maurice, Social Morality, 1869; Plato, The Republic, tr. Jowett, 1871; Grote, A Treatise on the Moral Ideals, 1876; Green, Prolegomena to Ethics, 1883; Aristotle, Politics, tr. Jowett, 1885; Fichte, Vocation of Man, tr. Smith, 1889; Kant, Critique of Practical Reason, tr. Abbott, 5th ed., 1898; Royce, The World and the Individual, 1901.

            Of contemporary and less academic titles, the following, out of a great number, may be named:

Addams, Jane. Democracy and social ethics. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1902, pp. 281.

A forcible exposition of the new duties created by a new social world. “The essential idea of democracy becomes the source and expression of social ethics” (p. 11).

Bosanquet, Helen. The strength of the people, a study in social economics. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1902, pp. xi, 345.

The correlation of circumstance and character traced in the problems of poverty, the family and industrialism. “‘Difficulties to overcome and freedom to overcome them’ is an essential condition of progress” (p. 339).

*Dewey, John, and Tufts, James H. Ethics. New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1908, pp. xiv, 618.

Ethical theory interpreted in its relation to “the world of action.” The ethics of social organization, economic life, politics and the family effectively described.

Dole, Charles F. The ethics of progress. New York: T. Y. Crowell & Co., 1909, pp. vii, 308.

A popular and lucid exposition of “the new morality.”

Henderson, Charles R. Practical sociology in the service of social ethics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1902, pp. 25.

“Social technology” as the guide of social philosophy.

Hobson, J. A. The social problem; life and work. London: James Pott, 1902, pp. x, 295.

Socialism applied to the “economy of national life.” “The Social Question will find its essential unity in the problem how to deal with human waste” (p. 7). “An organized democracy standing on a sound basis of property” (p. 130).

Jones, Henry. Idealism as a practical creed. Glasgow: J. Maclehose & Sons, 1909, pp. ix, 299.

A lucid and serene exposition of the practical efficiency of ethical idealism. “The call of modern age” is a call to the “earnest questioning of our ideals of life” (p. 220).

Jones, Henry. The working faith of a social reformer. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1910, pp. xii, 308.

Lectures to students for the ministry, and collected essays, expounding the interdependence of individualism and socialism, or the concurrent evolution of social and individual rights, duties and powers” (p. 111).

*Mackenzie, John S. An introduction to social philosophy. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1890, pp. xi, 390.

An academic, somewhat elusive, but judicial and suggestive outline, which has not yet been superseded.

Muirhead, J. H. Philosophy and life and other essays. London: Swan, Sonnenschein & Co., 1902, pp. 274.

Admirable essays on various aspects of the ethics of modern life.

Peabody, Francis G. The approach to the social question. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1909, pp. vii, 210.

The ways of social science, sociology and economics traced, and the ethical approach approved and explored.

Perry, R. B. The moral economy. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1909, pp. xvi, 267.

A searching and convincing analysis of the moral life in its relation to science, art and religion.

Ritchie, David G. Studies in political and social ethics. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1905, pp. ix, 238.

Occasional papers on the fundamental problems of social evolution, equality, liberty and responsibility.

*Stein, Ludwig. Die soziale Frage im Lichte der Philosophie. 2te verb. Aufl. Stuttgart: F. Enke, 1903, xvi, 598 S.

A brilliant survey of the history of social philosophy, with the outline of a system. Anti-socialist, but describing the “socializing” of property, law, politics and religion.

Wells, H. G. Mankind in the making. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1904, pp. viii, 400.

Social organization in the “New Republic,” with regulation of births, language, education and politics.

Ziegler, Theobald. Die soziale Frage eine sittliche Frage. 6te Aufl. Leipzig: G. J. Göschen‘sche Verlagshandlung, 1899, 183 S.

An early, but permanently important study of the social problem by an ethical philosopher. The moral note in socialism, industrialism and politics detected and reaffirmed.

Source: A guide to reading in social ethics and allied subjects; lists of books and articles selected and described for the use of general readers by teachers in Harvard University  (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University, 1910) pp. 22-24.

Image Source: Harvard University Archives.  Francis Greenwood Peabody [photographic portrait, ca. 1900], Colorized by Economics in the Rear-view Mirror.

Categories
Libertarianism Philosophy Popular Economics Wing Nuts

Freedom School. Summer Prospectus. Robert LeFevre, 1962

We step outside the bounds of conventional economics education in this post to enter the intensive boot-camp for libertarians established in 1957 by Robert LeFevre in Colorado Springs. Economics in the Rear-view Mirror’s latest artefact is the 1962 Prospectus for the Freedom School transcribed below.

Like many prophets of new religions, Lefevre brought definite charismatic talent along with a checkered past to his job as entrepreneurial educator. 

In the libertarian encyclopedia article about LeFevre, an observer-participant of the movement (Brian Doherty, the leading historian of Libertarianism in the United States) wrote:

“LeFevre worked as an actor, radio broadcaster, door-to-door salesman, real estate speculator and manager, TV newsman, and assistant to a pair of charismatic American cult leaders in a religious movement known as the Mighty “I AM.”

A definitely non-libertarian journalist expands on “assistant to a pair of charismatic American cult leaders” as follows:

In 1940, LeFevre published his first book, I AM: America’s Destiny, claiming that he had once driven his car for twenty minutes with his eyes shut while his soul cavorted with Saint Germain somewhere over California’s Lake Shasta. “Now, as I watched, and listened, Saint Germain talked to me. He was real! The world I lived in was unreal. He was the true reality.”
LeFevre quickly discovered how popular he became by claiming this power. Women made themselves available; crowds would gather in apartments to hear his “dictations” from the spirit of Saint Germain. One married woman he lusted after invited LeFevre to live with her and her husband in their San Francisco penthouse, causing her husband to drink himself almost to death.
It’s hard to tell if LeFevre genuinely anguished over his con job; in his memoirs, his language suggests that more than anything, he feared being found out:
“…What if I suddenly announced to all these good people that the whole thing was a sham? I was tempted to do it.”
“Was I guilty of fraud? Had I (subliminally) perhaps been engaged in some monstrous pretense?”
LeFevre’s stint as cult leader was short-lived. In late 1940, the FBI indicted him and 23 other top “I AM” figures with felony mail fraud. LeFevre immediately turned states’ witness, and charges against him were dropped, while Edna Ballard [note: she was the Tammy Faye Bakker of the I AM cult] and her son were sentenced to prison.

Source: Mark Ames, “Meet Charles Koch’s Brain.”

In a future post we will examine Charles Koch’s personal link to LeFevre’s Freedom School as well as some of the economist friends of the Freedom School.

________________________________

1962 Prospectus
The Freedom School

A Call to Introspection
and Thoughtful Appraisal

Today a whole series of concepts alien to the American ideal of 1776 has become acceptable to a great number of American people.

American business finds its back to the wall, confronted by outrageously high taxes, by regulations which impair its ability to operate and, additionally, by union organizers who not only force wages to rise in a manner disassociated with production but who are now usurping the functions of management in the field of hiring and firing. Without deep and thoughtful study of the economic and moral principles underlying a free market, today’s executive is ill-equipped to withstand union and government interventions.

American workers, caught in a vise between mounting taxes and soaring prices, and conditioned by various public media of education and communications, find themselves individually confronted with what appear to be only two possible alternatives: submit to unionism, or face unemployment and economic strangulation.

American students seeking to acquire an education are confronted with compulsion, illogic and ineptitude. Those who express a love and devotion to the ideas and ideals of the American founders are scorned, and admonished to forget “old-fashioned notions” about the Declaration of Independence and the Bill of Rights. They are advised that capitalism is outmoded, that private ownership of the means of production and distribution is out-dated and improper, and that a brave new world awaits them if they will conform to governmental intrusion in their lives, submit to authority at every level and try always to keep in mind that Society has become responsible for everything and everybody.

In a climate sired by big government, enormous taxes, legal intrusions, union violence, the threat of war, inflation and educational paucity. the individual must equip himself with the proper means of combatting false ideas and of standing firm in a sea of confusion. Only YOU can decide where you will stand in the ideological warfare of freedom vs. slavery.

This is a call to all Americans who are in rebellion against the foregoing evils and who wish to discover practical ways and means of meeting the challenge to their businesses and industries. to their families, their jobs and their property, and to their own intellectual integrity.

Robert LeFevre

The Freedom School

In poetic harmony with the setting of tall Douglas firs, the buildings comprising the Freedom School reflect in craftsmanship and rough-hewn simplicity the philosophy of individualism. The American tradition is articulated by the log facades on the buildings.

In such an harmonious setting away from jangle and tension, without the pressures caused by appointments, and undistracted by ordinary routine affairs, rigorous study can be pursued. Reflection and intellectual exploration in the field of human action can best be achieved in a tranquil atmosphere.

The student is encouraged to enter classroom discussions to probe human action philosophically, historically, economically, politically, ethically and morally.

He will sweep back through history examining the bright stars of freedom illuminating the course of human progress. The student will awaken to what governments can and cannot do; to the full impact of the merit of private ownership of property and its relationship to liberty.

The student will discover that there is no conflict between the highest moral beliefs and sound economic understanding.

The student is encouraged to seek self-improvement and his own excellence is pointed out as more important than the needs of societal groups.

He will find that all of these ideas, and more, are encompassed in a modern, intelligent philosophy of individualism, which rests its case on the natural, functional, rights of man.

Classwork convenes daily at 1:00 p.m. and continues until 5:00 p.m. when the student has a free hour before dinner, after which he returns to evening class. Evening class starts at 7:00 p.m, and concludes at 9:00 p.m. The student will discover that the pure mountain air, the brisk atmosphere, the rigorous use of his mental faculties encourage an early retiring.

Breakfast is served at 7:30 a.m. after which the student is free to go horseback riding, hiking, or to relax on one of the verandas and enjoy the vista of nature spread before him. There is available a fine libertarian library in which the student may sit in comfortable chairs and enter into lively discussion with his classmates. Superior reference material is close at hand. Each student’s quarters is equipped with a comfortable and well lighted study table. Books may be removed from the library for the student’s personal use.

Weather permitting, luncheon is held out-of-doors. The famous Sunday morning barbecue breakfast is held outdoors in a wooded glen.

Meals are served informally in the western tradition of hearty food. Most students have proclaimed the cuisine to be among the finest. Mrs. Loy LeFevre, who manages the school’s kitchen, has been urged by students to publish a cookbook comprised of the many savory recipes served at the Freedom School

Many days of sunshine each year provide excellent lighting for camera fans. Some of the pictures which appear in the Freedom School publications were taken by students.

At the Freedom School you will sleep better, eat better, think better, and feel better as you examine each facet of individualism.

            One of the most telling statements pointing out a problem present in our country was volunteered by a Freedom School student: “I graduated from an American high school, I’m attending an American university, and I must ask the question: Why is it that I must travel 1100 miles to learn the facts that I have found at the Freedom School?”

Other graduates of the School described their experiences thusly:

*          *          *

“Before going to the Freedom School I considered myself a staunch supporter of liberty, but after experiencing the exchange of ideas that transpires there I discovered untenable taints of socialism remaining in me. These I have now discarded.”

Engineer, Northwest

*          *          *

“Your teachings opened up hitherto neglected directions in my thinking. I had been unknowingly utilizing methods of combating the activities of those who would destroy freedom which methods in themselves aided rather than opposed these activities.”

Former state legislator,
Southeast

*          *          *

“In our class without exception it was agreed that none of us had ever taken a course so thorough and dynamic, so enlightening as this one. We received inspiration and knowledge in the two weeks that would normally not be found in a quarter century. The professor from Milwaukee stated that it was more than a semester of college work so far as study goes.”

Businesswoman, Southwest

*          *          *

“It has provided me with the strongest philosophical underpinning that I have ever experienced. Since returning. I have had much more confidence in my politico-economic discussions and arguments.”

Graduate student, East

*          *          *

“The greatest intellectual challenge I ever encountered.”

Business executive — attorney,
Midwest

Comprehensive Course

This is an intensive, hard-hitting course of general instruction which is useful to any American of mature outlook who wishes to explore and discuss some of the basic questions of our time. The banalities of socialism are exposed. Our heritage of individual liberty and the philosophy of freedom and free enterprise are openly discussed. This course is particularly useful for instructors, ministers, editors, commentators, columnists — concerned with the dissemination of ideas. It is also well adapted for the businessman or for serious-minded students generally.

The Comprehensive Course is open to men and women, regardless of present academic rating, who are willing to work and apply themselves in a pursuit of philosophic and economic truths.

The 1961 Annual available upon request (limited supply).

Explorations in Human Action
(for Executives)

This is a special and definitive course of instruction reserved for executives only.

Executives may bring their wives if they choose; however, wives are excluded from class discussion, tho they may sit in as observers.

The instruction in this two-week period will place special emphasis upon economic problems to be found in today’s business and industrial operations.

Write for illustrated booklet. Do it today. Space is limited and only a few carefully selected executives are chosen each year.

This course is more intensive than the Comprehensive Course and is particularly adapted to the executive who is somewhat familiar with management and labor relations problems.

Explorations in Human Action brochure available upon request.

Workshop

One session is scheduled during 1962 for the accommodation of graduates, instructors in the libertarian philosophy, economists, philosophers, and others, so that they can meet in the atmosphere of the school for the purpose of discussion, sharing ideas in depth and the presentation of papers on a selected topic.

This four-day session will feature a number of the nation’s outstanding leaders in libertarian thought. They will be on hand to confer with students or guests, and to lecture on various phases of the understanding of liberty and economics. Their names will be announced later.

The topic will be: “Are Labor Unions Necessary?”

Graduates wishing to enroll in the Workshop are urged to prepare a formal paper on any phase of the labor union topic and may take any position they wish. A prize in the sum of $100 will be awarded for the best paper, plus a refund of tuition.

Graduates wishing to enroll without making a formal presentation may do so, altho they will not be eligible for the competition. Only graduates of the Comprehensive Course may compete.

Scholarships

Scholarships are available for the Comprehensive Course under three plans.

  1. Full scholarships are available on the basis of a competitive examination. These examinations will be mailed from the Freedom School upon request beginning January 15. All competitive examinations will be judged the week of April 1, 1962, and awards announced thereafter. Winners will receive full tuition for any Comprehensive Course they select, tuition covering all room and board, books, instruction, recreation, and so on.
  2. Full scholarships may also be obtained AFTER April 15, 1962, by application to the Board of Directors of the Freedom School. These scholarships will be awarded on the basis of sincerity and personal worth of application when financial need is demonstrated. In a limited number of cases, outright awards will be made. In other cases, a student loan fund can be utilized with the student agreeing to return funds borrowed without interest.
  3. Partial scholarships may sometimes be obtained by any student who is willing to pay a part of his tuition himself.

Full-tuition scholarships will be presented to 1962 winners of the Freedom School competitive examinations from

The Arthur M. Hyde Foundation
The Rose Wilder Lane Scholarship Fund
The Campaign for the 48 States
The Spruille Braden Scholarship Fund
The Freedom School Alumni Scholarship Fund
and from other interested groups and individuals.

Local committees, such as the Sacramento (Calif.) Freedom School Scholarship Committee, will select candidates and present full-tuition scholarships to their winners.

NOTE: The school does not provide scholarships for either the Workshop or the Explorations in Human Action courses.

1962 Schedule

All courses of instruction at the Freedom School take two weeks. A minimum of six hours per day is spent in classroom work. Customarily, mornings are devoted to study, recreation and free time. Classroom sessions occur in the afternoon and evening.

Here is the schedule of all classes for the 1962 season:

May 20 – June 2 incl. Explorations in Human Action
(for Executives)
June 3 – 16 incl. Comprehensive
June 17 – 30 incl. Comprehensive
July 1 – 14 incl. Comprehensive
July 15 – 28 incl. Comprehensive
July 31 – August 3 incl. Workshop*
August 5 – 18 incl. Comprehensive
August 19 – Sept. 1 incl. Comprehensive
Sept. 2 – 15 incl. Comprehensive
Sept. 16 – 29 incl. Comprehensive
Sept. 30 – Oct. 13 incl. Explorations in Human Action
(for Executives)
(Graduates and top-flight teachers and students only)

Pre-season or post-season courses can be arranged for special groups who wish to obtain exclusive use of the school for a stated period with instruction tailored to any particular business or industrial problem. Write for information.

Instructors
Associate instructors who have served at Freedom School:

R. W. Holmes
Design engineer, Boeing Aircraft, Seattle, Washington

Frank Chodorov
Editor, author, New York City, N.Y.

Elgie C. Marcks
Professor of economics, University of Wisconsin at Milwaukee

V. Orval Watts, Ph.D.
Economist, author, Altadena, California

Oscar W. Cooley
Professor of economics, Ohio Northern University, Ada, Ohio

Ruth Alexander, Ph.D.
Nationally syndicated columnist, New Canaan, New York

James L. Doenges, M.D.
Surgeon; past president, Association of American Physicians & Surgeons, Anderson, Indiana

Ruth S. Maynard, Ph.D.
Professor of economics, Lake Erie Women’s College, Painesville, Ohio

Leonard E. Read
Founder-president, Foundation for Economic Education, Irvington-on-Hudson, New York

Rose Wilder Lane
Author, journalist, Danbury, Connecticut

F. A. Harper, Ph.D.
Economist, author, Burlingame, California

Salvatore Saladino, Ph.D.
Professor of history, Queens College, Flushing, New York

Wm. J. Grede
President and chairman of the board, J. I. Case Co., Racine, Wis.; past president, National Association of Manufacturers; chairman of the board, Grede Foundries

Wm. A. Paton, Ph.D.
Economist, professor of accounting, School of Business Administration, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

Chas. E. Stenicka, III
Labor relations consultant, Midwest Employers Council, Lincoln, Nebraska

Transportation

Make your travel arrangements to come to Colorado Springs. It is serviced by leading airlines, bus and train companies. The school management will not guarantee to pick up students at any other destination.

You will be expected to be waiting at the Antlers Hotel in downtown Colorado Springs by 5 p.m. on the Sunday before your course begins. The school station wagon will pick you up from the lobby. You’ll be returned to the lobby of the Antlers Hotel on the Saturday following the conclusion of the course.

On your drive to the school (about 27 miles) you’ll glimpse the colorful rugged Colorado countryside, with Pikes Peak towering off to your left.

After registering, a delicious dinner with your fellow students will introduce you to life at the school, with your first night’s sleep in the pine-scented foothills of the Rocky Mountains.

Meals

All meals are served buffet style. With the exception of the Sunday morning picnic, breakfast and dinner are eaten in the school dining room. Weather permitting, luncheon is eaten out-of-door at the tables adjacent to the kitchen.

Top-right: Following one week of intensive study, weather permitting, a barbecue breakfast is held Sunday at 8:30 a.m. in a wooded glen.
Lower-left: In the foreground is Thunderbird residence cabin, which is duplicated by Falcon cabin (not shown). The building in the upper right portion of the photograph is the dining room. Adjacent to the dining room is the school’s library.

Clothes

There will be no formal functions requiring “dressing up.” On nights when “open house” is held, ordinary street wear is appropriate. Otherwise, comfortable western clothes are preferable. Students who like horseback riding are encouraged to bring at least one pair of jeans. Sturdy shoes which give support to ankles are necessary if you are interested in either riding or hiking.

Resort wear is in keeping for recreational activities. For class, sport shirts and cotton dresses are suitable, with slacks and sweaters for cooler evenings. Clothes should be warm and serviceable. The elevation of the school is at 7,000 feet in the foothills of the Rockies. Days are warm but evenings are always cool.

Accommodations

The Freedom School is placed in a remote setting of woodland beauty. Accommodations are delightful and fully modern. Buildings are finished in natural logs to provide an atmosphere of early American simplicity. Most rooms accommodate from two to four students. There are ample porches, desks and chairs for study or relaxation.

Recreation

The school owns a small string of fine saddle horses which the students may ride during the morning hours. On the property are many fine hiking trails. There is a badminton court, a volleyball court and an archery range. All equipment is furnished by the school.

Library

In the school library is a fine collection of books on libertarian philosophy.

Included is a wide selection of titles on political science, history. biography, economics, philosophy and kindred subjects.

Philosophy

The Freedom School provides an intellectual avenue toward economic truths. From the primary and basic definitions of truth and freedom, the student moves rapidly through the philosophy of socialism, communism, and interventionism to individualism.

The course of instruction is intensive and demanding. It isn’t a “snap” affair. Ideas presented are far-reaching and challenging. To complete the course successfully, it is not necessary to agree with points of view offered. But individual effort is necessary even though conformity is neither required nor sought.

Accreditation

The school is not interested in issuing credits or diplomas.

Certificates of proficiency are presented to those who successfully complete any of the school’s courses. No certificates are awarded during Workshop attendance.

How Do I Enroll?

Make use of the appropriate enclosed enrollment form.

Await confirmation of your enrollment. We will be as prompt as possible.

Enrollment agreements are made for the FULL TWO-WEEK SESSIONS. No reduction or refund is made where a student withdraws during the session or is absent for part of the session, unless upon certification of a physician.

The school reserves the right to ask the withdrawal of a student whose health, in the judgment of the school’s medical advisor, is such as to endanger the student himself or the other students; or of a student who, in the judgment of the school administration, is not in sympathy with the standards, objectives and ideals of the school. A student who is asked to withdraw by the school will receive a pro-rata reduction in charges.

Who Can Attend?

The school is particularly designed for the enrollment of businessmen, executives, branch managers, department heads and others who carry the burden of free enterprise. Special courses limited to executives have been provided. However, executives may also enroll in any of the other courses offered.

The school is also eager to attract young men and women who are at least 16 years of age and who have a mature outlook.

Any American is eligible, man or woman, who is concerned with the conflicting philosophies apparent in our society and who wishes to study the economic truths respecting these philosophies. Prior scholastic achievement is not necessary.

The directors will make every effort to place applicants in courses with enrollees of similar backgrounds and interests. The right to approve or reject applications for enrollment is unconditionally reserved by the Board of Directors.

Tuition

Explorations in Human Action
(for Executives)		 $350.00
Wives who wish to accompany husbands $175.00
Comprehensive Courses $275.00
(Scholarships are available for some of the Comprehensive sessions)
Workshop $ 60.00
NOTE: No scholarships are available for any sessions at Freedom School
except the Comprehensive sessions.

What Tuition Covers

Whether the student elects to pay his own tuition or obtains a full or partial scholarship, all tuitions listed are full-expense tuitions. There are NO extras required.

Tuition includes transportation to the school from Colorado Springs, Colorado, and return to Colorado Springs. It includes all meals and lodging while at the school. It includes all required books and study materials. Certain books will be presented to the student for his permanent use. It includes all costs of instruction and recreation, including horseback riding.

Students wishing to provide notebooks for themselves, to buy extra books, tape recordings of meetings, or photographs of the scenery, do so at their own expense,

How is School Supported?

To begin with, the school is NOT supported by tax money or by government handouts.

Its primary income comes from tuitions paid by students.

In addition, it receives grants, contributions and benefactions from individual Americans.

It has several scholarship funds which assist in providing tuition for students.

It receives assistance from certain business and professional groups, and has been remembered in several last wills and testaments.

All contributions to the Freedom School are exempt from the federal income tax.

Publications

“This Bread is Mine” … $4.95
Robert LeFevre (American Liberty Press)

“Rise and Fall of Society” … $3.95
Frank Chodorov (Devin-Adair Co.)

“Why Wages Rise” (paperback ) … $1.50
F. A. Harper (Foundation for Economic Education)

“Mainspring” (paperback) … $1.50
Henry Grady Weaver (Foundation for Economic Education).

“Liberty – A Path to its Recovery” (paperback) … $1.50
F. A. Harper (Foundation for Economic Education).

“The Nature of Man and his Government” (paperback) … $1.00
Robert Lefevre (Caxton Printers, Ltd.).

“The Law” (paperback) … $1.00
Frederic Bastiat (Foundation for Economic Education)

“Should We Strengthen the United Nations?” (paperback) … $0.75
V. Orval Watts (Pine Tree publication).

“Jobs For All — Who Want To Work” (pamphlet) … $0.35
F. A. Harper (Pine Tree publication) [The Writings of F. A. Harper. Volume 2: Shorter Essays, pp. 184-206]

“Flight to Russia” (pamphlet) … $0.25
Frank Chodorov (Pine Tree publication)

“Liberty Defined” (pamphlet) … $0.25
F. A. Harper (Pine Tree publication).

“Anarchy” (pamphlet) … $0.15
Robert Lefevre (Pine Tree publication)

Quantity purchases are available for discount in some cases. Write for information.

Pine Tree

The Pine Tree is the Freedom School’s tabloid newspaper published every two weeks, with the exception of the period from December 15 through January 15. Subscription rates are $10.00 per year, two years for $17.50, single copies free on request.

It acts as a forum answering questions sent in by its subscribers. Regular columnists include: George Boardman, Ph.D., Chloride, Arizona; Roger Lea McBride, Esq., New York, N.Y.

Robert LeFevre, editor of the Colorado Springs Gazette Telegraph. Libertarians and economists of note will contribute guest columns.

Board of Directors

Ruth Dazey
William J. Froh
Lois Lefevre
Robert Lefevre
Marjorie Llewellin
Edith Shank
Robert B. Rapp

Board of Trustees

Robert W. Baird, Jr.
Milwaukee, Wisconsin

James L. Doenges, M. D.
Anderson, Indiana

Wm. J. Grede
Racine, Wisconsin

Harry H. Hoiles
Colorado Springs, Colorado

R. W. Holmes
Bellevue, Washington

Ned W. Kimball
Waterville, Washington

Board of Graduate Fellows

Mrs. Mabelle Acorn
Colville, Washington		 Mr. Ira T. Langlois, Sr.
Madison, Wisconsin
Mr. C. W. Anderson
Milwaukee, Wisconsin		 Mr. J. Dohn Lewis
Colorado Springs, Colorado
Mr. Harold Angier
San Francisco, California		 Prof. Elgie C. Marcks
Milwaukee, Wisconsin
Dr. Lyman W. Applegate
Colorado Springs, Colorado		 Mr. John H. Marsh
New York, New York
Mrs. Hermona C. Beardslee
Woodstock, Illinois		 Rev. Warren L. Norton
Greeley, Colorado
Mr. Robert E. Borchardt
Rockford, Illinois		 Mr. Rodney H. Peck
Seattle, Washington
Mr. George A. Brightwell, Jr.
Houston, Texas		 Mr. Fred C. Petersen
Mexico City. Mexico
Mr. Thomas C. Buckley
Los Angeles, California		 Mr. Sartell Prentice, Jr.
Pasadena, California
Mr. John J. Callahan, Jr.
Reading, Massachusetts		 Mr. Bryson Reinhardt
Cloverdale, Oregon
Mr. William J. Colson
Palm Springs, California		 Mr. George Resch
Burlingame, California
Prof. Oscar W. Cooley
Ada, Ohio		 Mr. O. R. Riddle
Eagle Pass, Texas
Mr. Jim Dean
Houston, Texas		 Mr. Pat O. Riley
Lima, Ohio
Mr. W. Dewey DeFlon
Colorado Springs, Colorado		 Mr. Richard D. Schwerman
Hales Corners, Wisconsin
Mr. Dan Foley
Fairmont, West Virginia		 Mr. Roland R. Selin
Salt Lake City, Utah
Mr. R. N. Gatewood
Samnorwood, Texas		 Mr. Elwood P. Smith
Chicago, Illinois
Mr. Robert M. Gaylord, Jr.
Rockford, Illinois		 Mr. R. J. Smith
Menlo Park, California
Mr. Frederick C. Gosewisch
Elm Grove, Wisconsin		 Mr. Charles E. Stenicka III
Lincoln, Nebraska
Mr. G. F. Grant
Colorado Springs, Colorado		 Mr. R. J. Sumners
Muskegon, Michigan
Mr. J. W. Greene
Spartanburg, South Carolina		 Mr. Leonard A. Talbot
Santa Rosa, California
Mr. Gene Hausske
Palmer Lake, Colorado		 Mr. John E. Tate
Omaha, Nebraska
Mrs. Evis S. Mays
Pueblo, Colorado		 Mr. Herman A. Tessmann
Milwaukee, Wisconsin
Mr. James D. Heiple
Pekin, Illinois		 Mr. Walter B. Thompson
Fort Worth, Texas
Mr. Roland H. Hennarichs
Milwaukee, Wisconsin		 Mr. Ross Thoresen
Salt Lake City, Utah
Mr. Frederick M. Hoagland
Chicago, Ilinois		 Mrs. Louise Young
Pasadena, Texas
Mr. James Kolb
Edmond, Oklahoma

These graduates are among those who serve as a point of reference for the school. Their own experience enables them to vouch for the work being done at Freedom School.

Source: Images and text from the 1962 Prospectus of the Freedom School found in the Hoover Institution Archives. Papers of V. Orval Watts, Box 4.

Categories
Exam Questions Harvard Philosophy

Harvard. Ethics of the Social Questions. Course description, enrollment, final exam. Peabody, 1902-1903

One fairly popular field chosen for doctoral exams by Harvard’s economics students in the early 20th century was Social Ethics that combined elements of so-called “practical economics”, sociology, philosophy, and religion. That field and later department was chaired by Professor Francis Greenwood Peabody who served in both Harvard College and the Harvard Divinity School.

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A short biography of Francis Greenwood Peabody can be found at the Harvard Divinity School History webpage.

A previous post provides the history of Harvard’s Department of Social Ethics up through 1920.

Peabody’s book, The Approach to the Social Question: An Introduction to the Study of Social Ethics (New York: Macmillan, 1909), presumably captures much, if not all, the spirit (Spirit?) of his ethical teachings.

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Biographical note on
Francis Greenwood Peabody

Francis Greenwood Peabody (1847–1936), Plummer Professor of Christian Morals, was associated with Harvard College and Harvard Divinity School from 1880 to 1912, serving as a lecturer, professor, and dean. He received his Harvard AB in 1869 and graduated from Harvard Divinity School in 1872; while a junior, Peabody was first baseman on the first Harvard baseball team to play against Yale. In 1874, he was ordained as minister of the First Parish in Cambridge, a position he maintained until 1880, when he resigned due to poor health. Harvard Divinity School Dean Everett then asked Peabody to lecture, but President Eliot, whose first wife was Peabody’s eldest sister, opposed the appointment due to nepotism. Later that year, however, he was appointed lecturer on ethics and homiletics. His courses, “The History of Ethics,” and “Practical Ethics” were the first of their kind in American theological education. While at Harvard, he ended compulsory worship and helped transform the Divinity School from a denominational seminary into a non-denominational theological school.

Peabody was named Parkman Professor of Theology in 1882, and became Plummer Professor of Christian Morals in 1886, also taking charge of Harvard College’s Appleton Chapel. He retired in 1913. Peabody also served as Acting Dean of the Divinity School on two occasions during the absence of Dean Everett, and was Dean himself from 1901 to 1905. Throughout his career, Peabody published many works, served as an Overseer of Harvard College, and was on the Board of Trustees of the Hampton Institute. Peabody died in 1936.

Source: Harvard Archives. Guide to Papers of Francis Greenwood Peabody webpage.

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Earlier, at the end of the 19th century

Exam questions for earlier years of this course have been transcribed and posted:

1888-1889; 1889-1890; 1890-1891; 1892-1893; 1893-1894; 1894-1895; 1895-1896.

A history of Harvard’s Department of Social Ethics has also been posted earlier.

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The Ethics of the Social Questions
Course Description, 1902-03

Philosophy 5. The Ethics of the Social Questions. The problems of Poor-Relief, the Family, Temperance, and various phases of the Labor Question, in the light of ethical theory. Lectures, special researches, and prescribed reading. Tu., Th., Sat., at 10. Professor Peabody assisted by Mr. —.

This course is an application of ethical theory to the social problems of the present day. It is to be distinguished from economic courses dealing with similar subjects by the emphasis laid on the moral aspects of the social situation and on the philosophy of society involved. Its introduction discusses the various theories of Ethics and the nature and relations of the Moral Ideal [Required reading from Mackenzie’s Introduction to Social Philosophy; and Muirhead’s Elements of Ethics]. The course then considers the ethics of the family [Required reading from Spencer’s Principles of Sociology (Volume 1; Volume 2; Volume 3]; the ethics of poor-relief [Required reading from Charles Booth’s Life and Labor of the People (see links to volumes below)]; the ethics of the labor question [Required reading: Carlyle’s Past and Present; Ruskin’s Unto this Last; Schäffle’s Quintessence of Socialism]; and the ethics of the drink-question [Required reading from Fanshawe’s Liquor Legislation in the United States]. In addition to lectures and required reading two special and detailed reports are made by each student, based as far as possible on personal research and observation of scientific methods in poor-relief and industrial reform. These researches are arranged in consultation with the instructor or his assistant; and an important feature of the course is the suggestion and direction of such personal investigation and the provision to each student of special literature or opportunities for observation. Students are advised to take both Philosophy 1 and Economics 1 before taking this course, and must have taken either the one or the other, or its equivalent. A special library of 650 carefully selected volumes is provided for the use of students in this course. Attention is also called to the Paine Fellowship, the holder of which should pursue advanced study in the same direction.

Source: Harvard University. Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Division of History and Political Science  [Comprising the Departments of History and Government and Economics], 1902-03. Published in The University Publications, New Series, no. 55. June 14, 1902.

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Charles Booth’s Life and Labor of the People:

(Original) Volume I, East London;
(Original) Volume II, London;
(Original) Appendix to Volume II;
Note: the previous three original volumes were re-printed as four volumes that then were followed by
Volume V, Population Classified by Trades;
Volume VI, Population Classified by Trades (cont.);
Volume VII, Population Classified by Trades;
Volume VIII, Population Classified by Trades (cont.);
Volume IX, Comparisons, Survey and Conclusions.

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The Ethics of the Social Questions
Course Enrollment, 1902-03

Philosophy 5. Professor Peabody, assisted by Mr. Ireland. — The Ethics of the Social Questions. The problems of Poor-Relief, the Family, Temperance, and various phases of the Labor Question, in the light of ethical theory.

Total 134: 5 Gr., 60 Se., 37 Ju., 15 So., 17 Others.

Source: Harvard University. Annual Report of the President of Harvard College, 1902-03, p. 69.

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Mid-Year Examination, 1902-03

[to be added]

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Philosophy 5
The Ethics of the Social Questions
Final Examination, 1902-03

This paper should be considered as a whole. The time should not be exhausted in answering a few questions, but such limits should be given to each answer as will permit the answering of all the questions in the time assigned.

  1. The place in the modern Labor Question of:—

Chalmers;
Proudhon;
von Ketteler;
William Morris;
Leclaire.

  1. Carlyle on:

Democracy;
Permanence;
Captains of Industry.

  1. Ruskin on:

Ad valorem;
Veins of Wealth;
Ideals of Education. (Preface to: Unto this Last, p. xi.)

  1. Anarchism and Communism compared with each other and with the present industrial order.
  2. Lasalle and Marx compared as influences on German socialism.
  3. “Social labor-time” as a standard of value; the view of Marx (Schäffle, p. 81 ff.); the criticism of Schäffle (ch. VI, VII); the ethical effect to be anticipated.
  4. The scheme of industrial conciliation proposed by the Anthracite Coal Commission and its relation to French and English methods of arbitration and conciliation.
  5. The scheme of industrial partnership proposed by the U.S. Steel Corporation — its plan, results, and relation to other types of profit-sharing.
  6. The ethical principles underlying all forms of liquor legislation. Compare the liquor legislation of Massachusetts with that of Pennsylvania. (Fanshawe, ch. XI and XII.)

Source: Harvard University Archives. Examination Papers 1873-1915. Box 6. Papers Set for Final Examinations in History, Government, Economics, History of Religions, Philosophy, Education, Fine Arts, Architecture, Landscape Architecture, Music in Harvard College, June 1903 (in the bound volume Examination Papers 1902-1903).

Image Source: Harvard University Archives.  Francis Greenwood Peabody [photographic portrait, ca. 1900], Colorized by Economics in the Rear-view Mirror.