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Columbia. 50th anniversary dinner of the Faculty of Political Science, 1930

The founder of the Columbia Faculty of Political Science (the home of the graduate department of economics), John William Burgess was 86 years old when the Faculty celebrated the fiftieth anniversary of its founding in October 1930. He died only three months after receiving the tributes from his colleagues to him as the evening’s guest of honor.

The Faculty of Political Science celebrated itself in style and not a lily was left ungilded.

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A few related links

Alvin S. Johnson’s remembrances of the Columbia professors Burgess, Munroe-Smith, Seligman, and Giddings.

John W. Burgess, Reminiscences of an American Scholar; the Beginnings of Columbia University. Columbia University Press, 1934).

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THE POLITICAL SCIENCE DINNER
[15 Oct 1930]

On the evening of October fifteenth, by invitation of the Trustees of Columbia University, a dinner was served at the Hotel Ritz-Carlton to three hundred and eighty-five guests, in celebration of the semi-centennial of the Faculty of Political Science at the University. At the close of the dinner President Butler, who was presiding, stepped into the reception room and soon reappeared escorting Professor John W. Burgess to the head table. When the guest of honor had been seated amidst applause,

President Butler, turning to Professor Burgess, spoke as follows:

My dear Professor Burgess, My Fellow Members of the University and our Welcome Guests: We are fifty years old, and greatly pleased; but see how far we have to go! The world of letters is just now celebrating the two thousandth anniversary of the birth of the poet Vergil; so we may confidently anticipate one thousand nine hundred and fifty years more of life, if the doctrine of stare decisis is to hold!

Imagine, if you can, what would be the satisfaction of Alexander Hamilton if he could join this company tonight. Imagine that rare spirit and great mind witnessing what has happened in that little old college of his, to the study of those subjects of which in his day he was the world’s chiefest master. We have come a long way since Samuel Johnson put that first advertisement in the New York Mercury. We have climbed many mountains; we have crossed not a few rivers; we have trudged, in weariness sometimes, over wide and dusty plains; but in these latter days we have come into our academic garden of trees and beautiful flowers with their invitations to mind and spirit to cultivate and to labor for those things which mean most to man.

Fifty years ago, as Professor Burgess told us yesterday on Morningside in words and phrases that will never be forgotten by those who heard them, he carried to completion the dream of his youth. He told us how that vision came to him as he stood in the trenches, a young soldier of the Union Army, after a bloody battle in the State of Tennessee: Was it not possible that men might in some way, by some study of history, of economics, or social science, public law and international relations, was it not possible that they might find some way to avert calamities such as those of which he was a part? And then he traced for us that story, ending with one of the most beautiful pictures which it has been my lot to hear painted by mortal tongue, the picture of that evening on the heights above Vevey, when that little group had completed their draft of a supplement to the Statutes of Columbia College, had outlined their program of study, had discussed the Academy, the Political Science Quarterly, the Studies, and had gone out to look upon the beauties of that scene, with all that it suggested and meant in physical beauty and historical reminiscence, to be greeted by the brilliant celebration of the Fall of the Bastille. It was from the trenches of Tennessee to Bastille Day on the slopes above Lake Geneva that marked the progress of the idea, which like so many great ideas, clothed itself in the stately fabric of an institution whose first semi-centennial we are celebrating tonight.

Fifty years have passed and of that group so distinguished as to be famous, our beloved teacher and chief is himself the sole survivor. It is not easy for me to find words to express my delight and the gratitude which we must all feel that he has felt able to come to us out of his peaceful and reflective retirement, that we, his old and affectionate pupils and lifelong friends might greet him in person, hear a few words from his voice and give a unique opportunity to those of the younger generation to see this great captain of our University’s history and life. [Applause.]

I repeat, most of the others of that notable group have gone on the endless journey — Richmond Mayo-Smith, eminent economist and teacher of economics; Edmund Munroe Smith, brilliant expounder of Roman law and comparative jurisprudence; Clifford Bateman, the forerunner of our work in administrative law, who died so soon that he hardly became permanently identified with the undertaking and was followed by Goodnow, detained from us tonight, unfortunately, by illness. Then came Edwin Seligman, our brilliant economist, who is in the same unhappy situation as Frank Goodnow and greatly grieved thereby; then Dunning and Osgood in History, John Bates Clark and Giddings. One after another that group was built, John Bassett Moore coming to us from the Department of State, until in a few short years Professor Burgess had surrounded himself with an unparalleled company of young scholars, every one of whom was destined to achieve the very highest rank of academic distinction. What shall I say of its achievements of the greatest magnitude, of the brilliant men who from that day to this, as teachers, as investigators, as writers, have flocked to these great men and their successors, who have gone out into two score, three score, five score of universities in this and other lands, highly trained, themselves to become leaders of the intellectual life and shapers of scholarship in these fields? Are we not justified in celebration and in turning over in our minds what it all means, not alone by any means for Columbia, but what it means for the American intellectual life, for the American public service, for the conduct of our nation’s public business, for our place among the nations of the earth and for the safe and sound and peaceful conduct of our international relations?

To each and all of these that little group, the seed of the great tree, has contributed mightily, powerfully and permanently. If ever there was a man in our American intellectual life who could turn back to his Horace and say that he had “built for himself a monument more enduring than bronze” here he is!

It is not for me to stand between this company and those who are here to speak on various aspects of that which we celebrate; but first and foremost, as is becoming, before any junior addresses you, I am to have the profound satisfaction of presenting for whatever he feels able and willing to say, the senior member of Columbia University, its ornament for all time, the inspiration and the builder of our School of Political Science and the fountain and origin of influence and power that have gone out from it for fifty years, my dear old teacher, Professor Burgess. [Applause.]

PROFESSOR BURGESS responded:

Mr. President, Colleagues, Friends, all: I did not come here tonight to add anything to what I said yesterday. I had my say, and I came to listen, and I have been fully repaid for all the trouble I have taken to get here, with what has already been said.

In thinking over, however, what I said to you in my remarks yesterday, I was struck with their incompleteness, in one respect at least; the failure to make plain the aim which I had in mind in the establishment of the School of Political Science. I do not know that I had that aim clearly in mind myself from the first, but before the school was established, it became clear, that what we intended, all four of us, was to establish an institution of pacifist propaganda, genuine, not sham, based upon a correct knowledge of what nature and reason required, geographically in reference to foreign powers, policies of government, in reference to individual liberty and social obligations.

We thought that alone upon such a knowledge, widely diffused, we might hope to have, some day, genuine pacifism, but not before.

I only wish to impress upon you that one thought and I can illustrate it by one picture. I have said to you in general terms that the idea of the School of Political Science came to me in the trenches, but it was not exactly in the trenches. It was this way; it was on the night of the second of January, 1863, when a young soldier, barely past his military majority, stood on one of the outposts of the hardly-pressed right wing of the Union Army in Tennessee, in a sentry-box….

[Here Professor Burgess drew for his audience a vivid picture of the battle of Stone’s River and rehearsed the prophetic vow which he had taken in the midst of that tragic scene, a vow to dedicate his life to aid in putting law in the place of war. These passages, made more memorable by his tone and manner, had originally been intended for his historical address the previous day, but had been excluded then for lack of time. They may now be found as the third paragraph of that address printed on a preceding page.]

You cannot wonder therefore that I say now, that I want to leave that word with you as my parting word, the Faculty of Political Science, the School of Political Science, is an institution for genuine pacifist propaganda.

Mr. President, I have only now to thank you and the other members of the faculty, all of the students or who have been students in the School of Political Science, all the friends who have met here tonight for this glorious demonstration of the fiftieth birthday of the School of Political Science, I thank you all; I am deeply grateful. I cannot express myself, my feelings will not allow it. Amen! [All arose and applauded.]

PRESIDENT BUTLER then said:

We are to have the privilege of hearing an expression from one of our elder statesmen. I remember being summoned to a meeting of the Committee on Education of the Trustees on another matter at the time when Professor Burgess succeeded in having established the Chair of Sociology. The Chairman of the Committee was Mr. George L. Rives, one of the most charming, one of the most cultivated, one of the most influential members of the University. When Professor Burgess’ proposal had been accepted and a distinguished professor of Bryn Mawr had been called to be Professor of Sociology, Mr. Rives turned to Professor Burgess and said: “Now that we have established a Chair of Sociology, perhaps someone will explain to me what sociology is.”

That has been the task of Professor Giddings. He has not only explained what it is, but by the integration of material drawn from history, from economics, from ethics, from public law, from the psychology of the crowd, he has set it forth in the teaching with which his life has been identified. He belongs in the history of the School of Political Science to the second group, the one now left to us, fortunately, in active membership. I have the greatest pleasure in presenting our distinguished colleague and friend, Professor Franklin H. Giddings, Professor Emeritus of Sociology and the History of Civilization.

PROFESSOR GIDDINGS spoke as follows:

President Butler, Doctor Burgess, and a host of friends that I see here tonight, who in former years gave me the delight of welcoming and working with them in my classroom: It was thirty years ago that I began teaching in this Faculty; that was two years before my appointment as a professor here; Professor Richmond Mayo-Smith planning to spend a Sabbatical year abroad, asked me if I would take over some instruction in sociology at Columbia in place of the courses which he was obliged to drop in social science. The Trustees of Bryn Mawr College, where I was then teaching graciously gave their consent and made this possible for me, and I was glad to improve the opportunity. This action of Bryn Mawr was subsequently followed by the appointment here of a remarkable group of men drawn from that small faculty. They included E. B. Wilson, Thomas Hunt Morgan, Frederick S. Lee and Gonzales Lodge. They came from a small college for women to take up graduate work in the faculty of this University.

I began my work in the autumn of 1892, and the work was with a class of very interesting young men among whom were two dear friends whom I greet here tonight, Professor Ripley and Victor Rosewater, soon afterward editor of the Omaha Bee. The work of that Friday afternoon course then begun and now since my retirement from teaching continued by Professor MacIver, has been uninterrupted from that day to this, I think a somewhat remarkable case of continuity in an academic program.

When I came here finally, resigning from Bryn Mawr in 1894, I was so cordially welcomed and so unfailingly assisted in every way, that you will not be surprised when I tell you my most vivid memories, my most cherished ones, of those years are of the faith, sympathy and support of these new colleagues of mine. I knew that as Professor of Sociology I was an experiment, but never once did my colleagues admit that I was, or that the teaching which I had begun was to be experimental; they assumed that it would achieve at least a measure of success. I felt many misgivings, but I wanted to find the answer to a question that disturbed me. Here was a group of gifted scholars of unsurpassed erudition in political theory, public law, history and economics, but I thought I saw multiplying evidences that the actual behavior of multitudes of human beings was not in line with the academic teachings of these men.

The carefully thought-out distinctions between the sphere of government and the sphere of liberty which our honored leader was year by year elaborating apparently had no interest for the multitude, and that embodiment of these distinctions which Americans possess in their heritage of Constitutional Law was subject to increasing disparagement and attack. That was in the days of talk about referendum, initiative, recall of judges and all that sort of thing; my question was, “Why is our political behavior so different from our political theory?”

I went to work on that question. My tentative answer was the naturalistic sociology which for two years I had been teaching in my Friday lectures. Increasing density and miscellaneousness of population mean an increasingly severe struggle for existence. The numbers of the unsuccessful multiply, and they have no understanding of the real causes of their misfortunes. Low in their minds, they attribute their hard luck to man-made injustice. Therefore, they think to better themselves by expropriation, by equalizing opportunity, by restricting liberty and, in the last resort, by communism.

In a population so constituted, government by discussion, by parliamentary methods, is obviously impossible. The working out of programs is handed over to dictators. At the present moment the political behavior of the multitude is more and more conforming to this picture, I think you will agree, and less and less to the parliamentarism and constitutionalism which half a century ago we thought we had achieved for all time.

Naturalistic sociology is abhorrent to sentimentalists, and to the men and women whom our former Fellow, Dr. Thomas Jesse Jones, calls the professional sympathizers.

I found it seemingly incompatible also with the humane ideas of men and women of nobler quality. Foremost among these was President Low. He was deeply interested in a possible salvation of the unfit which nature would eliminate. At his wish and suggestion a close coöperation was brought about between the professorship of sociology and such agencies as the social settlements, the Charity Organization Society and the State Charities Aid Association.

A way of reconciliation was easier to find then to follow. It consists in logically developing the familiar discrimination long ago made in law and political theory between the natural man and the legal person. The legal person is a purely artificial bundle of immunities and powers. The state makes it and can unmake it. The natural man is biological and psychological only. He has neither social status nor legal powers. It is theoretically possible therefore, and presumably possible in fact, to exterminate the unfit as legal persons by extinguishing their law-made capacities and powers and yet at the same time without harm to the body politic or to future generations, to seek and save the lost, as human sympathy prompts and Christian teaching enjoins, provided we save them only as natural individuals, divested of social status and legal personality.

In the years that have passed we have made some real progress, I think, in working out these possibilities. Under the leadership of Dr. Devine, for some years a member of this Faculty, and of Professor Lindsay, still here, multiplying contacts were made with every kind of accredited social work; and the study of social legislation and the programs of the Academy of Political Science, always so practical and up-to-date under Professor Lindsay’s administration, have enabled us to achieve much.

But these years have not gone by without their disappointments. We have heard of the passing on of a large number of the men that were my colleagues and associates when I came here in those early days, but there still remain a goodly number of men, many of them here tonight, with whom my relations have always been of the most affectionate nature, and the chief word I want to say to you in conclusion is that so long as the years are spared to me I shall feel that the most satisfying moments of my life have been those in which, with the aid and support of these dear friends, I have been enabled in a measure to carry on the work I came here hoping to do.

For all the time that remains I know that I shall, day by day and through all the years, if there may be years, have the most affectionate regard for these colleagues for whom it is impossible to express my feelings of gratitude and love. [Applause.]

PRESIDENT BUTLER continued:

A part of Professor Burgess’ original plan was the organization of an Academy of Political Science. Its primary purpose was to bring together former students and alumni into a permanent body for the consideration and discussion of questions which fell within the purview of the political sciences, and then to add to such a group others like-minded in that and neighboring communities.

That Academy has flourished, done notable work from that day to this, and from its ranks we are to have the pleasure of hearing from an old, very old friend, despite his youth, Dr. Albert Shaw, Editor of the Review of Reviews and Vice President of the Academy of Political Science and associated with it these many years. I have great pleasure in presenting Dr. Shaw.

Dr. SHAW then spoke as follows:

President Butler, Professor Burgess, Friends of Columbia University and Members of the Faculty of Political Science in the University: I feel more than usually diffident in standing here as representative of the Academy of Political Science, a speaker on behalf of the Academy who is not himself a member of the Faculty of the University. I may say that I have come at times near to being considered a member of the Faculty. I came to New York almost forty years ago with some academic experience behind me, and a great deal of printer’s ink on my fingers, and a great ambition to present in my editorial work in a practical way to the man in the street some of the aims and ideals for social and public improvement that I knew were represented in the work of the men who were leading the University.

I realized that the University was a great and permanent source of inspiration and of help to the body politic, that government could derive enormous aid from the standards that could be set by the University and particularly here in this great metropolis by the Faculty that Professor Burgess was gathering about him in the University.

The hospitality of the University toward me when I came here is something I remember with gratitude. I had been here only a year, almost forty years from now, when the University asked me to give lectures in conjunction with Cooper Union, on the way Europe governed its cities in contrast to the way we governed ours. I had been criticised for my writings about the city government, as I had held up some of the practical and progressive ways in which European cities were trying to provide for their own people in contrast with some of our forms of government.

Columbia University did not mind in the least my seeming heretical point of view and gave me the opportunity to speak my mind.

At other times I had the same kind of more than kindly and generous recognition from Columbia, so I have always felt that though I was working at a practical, every-day profession, I was regarded at Columbia as of the same mind and as of the same purpose. So I have tried through long years to give a little of the touch and flavor of the academic spirit to the discussions of practical and current affairs.

A good many years ago, in an acute presidential campaign when tariffs and questions of that kind were in rather bitter controversy, I thought that it might be desirable to give to the politicians of the country a little booklet [The National Revenues: A Collection of Papers by American Economists, Chicago, 1888.] presenting those subjects from the academic standpoint, written by men working in the universities; that was before I had come to New York. I was then an editor in the west. I picked up today that forgotten little book and I found that the contributors had so presented their topics that my volume is very much like one of the current issues of the proceedings of an annual or semi-annual meeting of the Academy of Political Science. Professor Mayo-Smith contributed, Dr. Seligman contributed, Professor John B. Clark contributed, Dr. James H. Canfield contributed and one or two other men who were then or have since become conspicuously associated with the work of the Faculty of Political Science, contributed to this little book of mine, published in 1888, dealing with the most acute questions with the most perfect frankness. Professor Hadley from Yale, two men from Harvard, Dr. Ely from Johns Hopkins, himself a Columbia man, all dealt with the subjects with perfect candor and without reservations, telling their views about tariffs and similar pending questions, but all with that air of truth-seeking that was in such contrast with the kind of discussion that was current at that time. It gave me as a journalist a fresh understanding of the possibility of presenting subjects in such a way that there might be permanence in the quality of the discussion, although the issue itself might change with the lapse of time.

It seems to me this permeation of our social and political life by a great body of scholars, of men who were essentially statesmen, has had a greater effect upon the country, been a greater protection to our institutions as they have gone forward, than is commonly realized. There are so many conditions in our current political life, so many things that seem unworthy in politics, so many men who hold offices who do not exhibit in their expressions and in their work the standards we should like to set for them, that we are a little confused at times; but it does seem to me that the spirit that goes out from the universities is, to surprising degree, developing the standards of public opinion and they in turn bear upon the course of practical politics and save us from many things that otherwise might be more disgraceful than anything that ever comes to light in the processes of exposure or investigation.

I remember very well the growth and development of the Teachers College and the whole science and philosophy of education as centered in Columbia University and now that in a great metropolis like this we have more than a million children being trained, I have within the last weeks looked over reports and documents of all kinds pertaining to the courses of study and instruction and the standard now prevailing in the schools of New York in order to see if I might trace there what one might call the developing standard of education as fixed and set by our institutions, like the Teachers College. It seemed to me that the profession of teaching moves on, improves the school, lifts the lives of our children to far better standards than one found here twenty, thirty, forty, fifty years ago; that in spite of any sort of condition in political life that may or may not be exposed, the standards of civilization are improving all the time in American life and largely through such agencies as that which we have heard described tonight, this remarkable leadership in the study of politics as a science and in the various departments of economic and political and social study.

The freedom with which men meet and discuss those subjects has been greatly improved by the practices that prevail in this Academy of Political Science which was one of the features of Professor Burgess’ scheme as he outlined it some half century ago. The Academy could not have developed as it has except in its close association with the University and it has enabled a great many men not in the University to come into contact with the University leadership and the association has been very valuable to them.

The Academy beginning with a small group at the University has now so extended that there are several thousand members. The Quarterly, founded at the same time, has grown and gone forward in association with the Academy; it and the annual Proceedings give the membership a sense of contact with Columbia thought. So it has been possible to hold the activities all together as an associated group, and their influence has been very valuable as the Academy has taken up from time to time current questions and problems and presented them to the country in such a way as to have undoubted influence on public opinion and the course of affairs.

Dr. Lindsay has been President of the Academy for almost a quarter of a century; he might better have spoken for it; but at least I have the opportunity to speak in praise of his work, and I know all of you would be glad to have that work so praised.

I am sure that I have spoken as long as I ought to. I can only thank the Faculty of Political Science and the Academy for permitting me to speak on its behalf. [Applause.]

PRESIDENT BUTLER then said:

I have a message from one of our seniors, kept from us tonight by illness, which I am happy to read: “It is with the greatest regret that I find myself prevented from attending the ovation to my old teacher, colleague and dear friend. Whatever of note has been achieved by the Faculty of Political Science in the half century of its existence is due in large part to the tradition of scholarship he emphasized, the spirit of tolerance he inculcated and the freedom of thought and expression he exemplified in person and so zealously guarded for all his colleagues. (Signed) EDWIN R. A. SELIGMAN.” [Applause.]

It is becoming that we should turn now to one of Professor Burgess’ “bright young men.” Among those who in the early days of the Faculty came quickly to distinction and occupied the position of Prize Lecturer for a number of years is the distinguished economist of national and more than national reputation who has served so long and with so great distinction at Harvard University that he is now Professor Emeritus of Economics in that Institution. I have the very greatest pleasure in presenting to you, as a representative of the very early group of graduates in political science from this University, Professor William Z. Ripley.

PROFESSOR RIPLEY spoke as follows:

Beloved Dean, Mr. President, Professor Giddings, and my former colleagues and outsiders: I take it that this is a family party. First I want to correct the record. Our honored President is not the first man in New York who has tried to place me on the shelf; a taxi-driver tried to do it, also, a few years ago. [On 19 January, 1927, Professor Ripley was seriously injured by an automobile in New York City. — THE EDITOR.] I am no longer Professor Emeritus; I am back on the job; in fact, when depression came on they found they could not do without me. [Laughter.]

I am here, I take it, in a two-fold capacity; first, and by all means the pleasantest, is to present the felicitations of other universities, particularly of Harvard University, to the Dean and to the School of Political Science and to confess and acknowledge that it did a pioneer work that none of us can claim a place of priority in any respect in this field. I trust you will believe me when I say that in fealty to Harvard University, I have spent a good part of the last two weeks digging over every source that I could discover in order to find some way in which Harvard University scored in this field, and I cannot find it. [Laughter.] And so I come with the full acknowledgment of my colleagues that this was pioneer work.

Think back, and see where we stood at Harvard University in this field. Dunbar, a newspaper editor, was giving one course in economics. But the elective system had not yet come in; practically all of the time of the students was tied up on a fixed schedule. This course of Dunbar’s was admitted on the side as an extra and didn’t amount to much except in quality; in following it stood for very little at the time of the foundation of this School of Political Science. Macvane was there in history; there was nobody in government; there were one or two attempts by other men but they were half-hearted and one might characterize them as one did on a certain occasion speaking of a man, saying “he was a good man in his business career, but he was not a fanatic about it.” And so we acknowledge with the utmost gratitude the contribution that you made, sir, and that this University made, in founding the School of Political Science.

We have but one satisfaction. That was that in these endeavors there was a very happy understanding between the two institutions. The Political Science Quarterly and the Quarterly Journal of Economics, if I am not misinformed, started in the same year. For a moment there was a little feeling lest there might be rivalry, but I am told in the interchange of correspondence largely by Mayo-Smith on your side and Dunbar and Taussig on our end, that there was not only understanding but accord and agreement that they would divide the field. They have never been rivals and each has been utterly proud of the achievement of the other.

I spoke of there being a two-fold capacity in which I appear. I take it I am exhibited here as a horrible example, one of the products of this School of Political Science. I am tempted to paraphrase an introduction an acquaintance of mine told me he heard Mark Twain give in Sydney, Australia, the time he went around the world. He came on the platform for his lecture with a lugubrious countenance and said: “My friends, Julius Caesar is no more; Alexander the Great has passed on; Napoleon has joined his fathers, and I am not feeling very well myself!” [Laughter.] If I were to paraphrase that, I should put it something like this: The glacial epoch took place we will say ten million years ago; the Pyramids were set up six or eight thousand, (we won’t quibble about a thousand more or less) and I graduated from the School of Political Science thirty-seven years ago! [Laughter.]

There was a connection, perfectly happy on my side, as Prize Lecturer so long as I was at Tech, but Dr. Seligman told me frankly when chosen as Professor at Harvard, that would have to come to an end. He said, “You could hardly ride two horses, even if you ride parallel.” So I resigned, with a whole year to run on that Prize Lectureship; think of it!

Thinking back over the early days, it may take down your pride to think how modest some of those affairs were. My lot as a teacher here was not as happy as Professor Giddings’. He spoke about his class being experimental, in a way. I was there as a student the first year; there must have been thirty or forty of us at least; [turning to Professor Giddings] you didn’t have to worry when a rainy day came, or a snow storm, wondering whether you would lose your whole body of students. I did! For two or three years, in that course in anthropology, I had only two students, and when you have only two, the weather counts. [Laughter.] I realized that on another occasion when the Hartford Theological Seminary decided to go into sociology. I had two students. The next year the course was not repeated because those two married one another! [Laughter.]

In this Academy of Political Science that they are blowing about, I read a paper the first year of my attendance here at Columbia, down at Forty-ninth Street. We held the meeting in Dr. Seligman’s office; you remember what a little place that was? Francis A. Walker was there; I got him to go. Dr. Seligman was there. I think Mayo-Smith came. Nobody else but the faculty, Francis A. Walker and the speaker; we had a wonderful meeting, and I got the chance of publishing that paper in the Political Science Quarterly. But the existence of that Academy, even in that little way, in its early beginnings, was stimulating. The young student could feel that there was an opportunity to present something he had worked out in his own head, and all these agencies played in together, the Quarterly was there to publish the paper and when it appeared as an address before the Academy of Political Science the world at large didn’t know how many people there were not present at the time. [Laughter.]

In closing I want to emphasize for you the happy fact that this Faculty, this School of Political Science should have arisen in the greatest center of population and activity in our whole country; you don’t realize it, you who live in it. If you lived in a remote part of the country, where as Barrett Wendell once told me he doubted whether most of our colleagues realized that the Charles River was not mightier than the Mississippi, you would realize what a live spot New York is, and, I take it, to the economist and student of government it is a little bit like Vienna in its attractiveness to the medicos; you get what diseases you get in very, very advanced stages. As a spot where you get the ultimate fruition and decomposition of human endeavor, New York seems to me to be unsurpassed.

That is why it is such a royal laboratory, why there is such a stimulus to the young men coming from all over the United States to be suddenly thrown into this great aggregation of human beings. I like to apply the description that I ran across the other day in Hardy’s letters. Somewhere he spoke of London, “that hot plate of humanity, on which we first sing, then simmer, then boil, and dry up to ashes and blow away.” That is New York, viewed from the outside. Never in our history has there been such opportunity for wholesome, stimulating activity and an example of a body like this, than at the present time.

We are all of us appalled and discouraged at times by what we see, and tempted to lose faith and “let ’er slide,” but it is the continued activity of institutions of this sort and led by this particular School which means so much for the whole land. And so, from the outside, I bring felicitations, and from the inside I bring affectionate acknowledgment. [Applause.]

PRESIDENT BUTLER:

Not even in darkest New York can one always be wholly accurate. The other day a typical old-fashioned New Yorker, a former student in the School of Political Science, ventured to offer to the public a list of the really controlling personalities in the life of America. [See James Watson Gerard, 1889 C, 1891 A.M., 1929 LL.D., in the New York newspapers of 21 August, 1930.] Shortly afterward Rollin Kirby had a cartoon in which he had a bootlegger standing with a racketeer, and they were looking at this list. One said to the other: “That man is simply ignorant!” [Laughter.]

Yesterday, Professor Burgess made it clear in a score of ways why we honor at Columbia the name of Ruggles. He made it plain that it was the foresight and the energy and the persistence of Samuel B. Ruggles that enabled him to carry to a conclusion his project in the month of June, 1880. Mr. Ruggles left his physical mark upon the island of Manhattan in Gramercy Park. He left his intellectual mark through some forty years of service to old Columbia College as a Trustee, the crowning part of which was his making himself the agent to secure the approval by the Trustees for Professor Burgess’ plan. It is highly appropriate then that the Ruggles Professorship of Constitutional Law should exist and that its incumbent at the moment should be the Dean of the Faculty of Political Science, as well as the Dean of the Faculties of Philosophy and of Pure Science in Columbia University.

An anniversary of this kind offers two invitations: one to look back; with sentiment, with rich memory and affection; the other to look forward with hope, with courage and high purpose. What could be more fitting then than that we should hear in conclusion this evening from that colleague and friend who is the captain of our enterprise as it enters upon its second half century, Dean McBain.

DEAN MCBAIN responded as follows:

Professor Burgess, Mr. President, my friends and guests: We celebrate a birth, the birth of the Faculty of Political Science and of its hand-maiden the Academy of Political Science. Fifty years have unrolled since our distinguished founder called together, as he told us so vividly, so dramatically, yesterday, that small but remarkable group of young scholars who then and there dedicated their lives to the difficult but most inspiring task of applying at least the aspirations of science to the study of actualities of society. For thirty years and more he guided and he shared the life of these twin children of his youthful vision. Happily he tarries with us, as rich in intellect and experience as in years. He lingers to behold that unlike the ephemeral grass of the Scriptures this vision of his youth which grew up in the morning is not in the evening of his life cut down, dried up and withered.

I say we celebrate a birth. Much more truly do we celebrate the passing of a mere paltry half-century of our indomitable and perennial youth. Our youth must be perennial because the fields of our interests never have been and never can be fallow fields. On the contrary, they are all too fertile of problems old and of problems new, that call for investigation and study in the intensely interested but dispassionate spirit of scientific inquiry. As long as man remains on earth in something like the present estate of mind and of body just so long will the political and social sciences also remain.

I confess that as my mental fingers move across the keys of my memory, I find some difficulty in choosing the chord I would most like tonight to sound and for a moment to hold. For one thing the possible chords are numerous; for another, they are intricate of execution; for a third, I do not perform well, either in public or private, upon a theme that lies very close to my heart. The Faculty of Political Science is such a theme.

Obviously, as the President just indicated, I have a choice of toasting the past, or of hailing the present or feasting the future. Of these, to toast the past would no doubt seem the most appropriate. The occasion invites to reminiscence, to appraisal. But the truth is that our past needs no toasting; certainly it needs no toasting at our own hands. Even for our honored dead we pour our libations in reverence and affection rather than in praise or exaltation. Moreover, were I competent to the task, it would ill become me to venture to appraise the men of this Faculty and their work.

Professor Burgess yesterday told us of those thrilling events that marked the fateful fourteenth of July, 1880. I beg leave to mention another event that happened almost at the same moment, wholly unknown to that little band in Switzerland. Under that same summer moon that smiled gloriously down upon the birth of the Faculty of Political Science, in that same week of July 14th, in that same year 1880, another very important event also occurred: I was born. Important, of course only to me. The Faculty and I crossed our first quarter century mark in company, though I need scarcely remark that I, then a student under the Faculty, was somewhat more aware of and more interested in this coincidence of anniversary than were my revered preceptors. Fortunately for me we are likewise crossing our second quarter century in company.

Since the beginning of its history, only sixty-three men have held membership in this Faculty. I have personally known every one of them save two who passed beyond the portals of the University before I entered them. I can say, therefore, that I have known and that I know the Faculty, which makes it all the more difficult, not to say impossible, for me to talk to the Faculty about the Faculty.

But this I must record, striking again the beautiful note just sounded by Professor Giddings: Scholars I suppose are essentially individualists. Men have been and are appointed to this Faculty primarily on the basis of scholarly achievement and scholarly promise. But the quality of being a scholar does not inevitably preclude such qualities as irascibility, even pugnacity. It is, therefore, or it may be, only a chance, but surely a very providential chance, that this Faculty, this company of scholars, have lived their lives together in such splendid harmony. They are the most coöperative group I have ever known. Indeed, they exemplify better than any other group I have ever heard of that non-existent thing, the group-mind.

I do not imply that we have not known occasional trouble and disagreement. We are human beings. But such experiences have been Faculty ever passed, one of my fundamentally irreligious colleagues once said to me: “Jesus was right; the only thing worth while in life is love, and our Faculty has that.” He spoke truly, and I feel no shame in avowing the deep affection that the members of this Faculty have and have had for one another.

In connection with this celebration, it was at one time mooted that we should publish a history of these fifty years of the Faculty of Political Science. But such a history written by or under the aegis of the Faculty could with Jeffersonian decent respect for the opinions of mankind have been little more than a record without appraisal. It might not have been wholly barren of interest, but in its indispensably backward leaning objectivity could scarcely have failed to minify or otherwise mispresent facts. Nor could it possibly have expressed that many-faceted, flashing thing of spirit that is and always has been the Faculty of Political Science. And so it was abandoned, this project of a history. In its stead we are publishing a bibliography of all the members of the Faculty, past and present-a stark list of the titles of the books, the articles, the pamphlets, the papers of their authorhood. The list runs to something over three thousand five hundred items. To this we are appending the titles of the nearly seven hundred dissertations that have been written under the guidance of the Faculty, into the warp of which (perhaps I should say some of which) there have been woven many hours of love’s labor in the cause of sound scholarship. To some of you such a volume may seem both deadly dull and useless. I think you will find it is neither of these. To the members of the Faculty themselves this volume cannot fail to be a treasury of historical recall. To them and to others it cannot fail to be of use as a locator of vaguely remembered contributions that lie in widely scattered depositories. But more than that, I think you will find, strange to relate, that this skeleton of titles tells a story, partial it is true, but a story of the progress of the intellectual life and intellectual interests of the Faculty, and something of its services.

Consider the period in which this Faculty has lived its life. Measured in terms of cosmic history, it is less than infinitesimal. Measured in terms of even authentic human history, it is almost negligible. But in terms of social, economic, even political change, this fifty years just past is probably longer than the millennium between the fall of Rome and the discovery of America, or the tercentenary span between Gutenberg and Arkwright. In this packed period of change in the subjects of its interest, the Faculty has lived its thus far life; and its deep absorption in the problems of its own age is reflected in this list of writings, not, of course, but what numerous other interests are also reflected. Our distinguished founder, as our distinguished President remarked the other day, was indeed both prophet and seer. But of a certainty, as Mr. Justice Holmes once said of our constitutional fathers, he and his coadjutors “called into life a being the development of which could not have been foreseen completely by the most gifted of its begetters.”

A glance at the formidable list of its publications might convince one that the members of this Faculty, apart from student contacts, have spent their entire lives behind locked doors reading, pondering, writing. This is far from fact. Again and again its members have responded to knocks upon those doors calling them to exacting public and quasi-public service. To you, Mr. President, both the public and the Faculty owe an unpayable debt, in that you have not only given sympathetic ear and understanding thought to the scholarly interests and desires of the Faculty but have also aided and abetted in every possible way their ambitions to be of use in the formulation of public policies and the direction of public affairs. You recognized, as one would know you would recognize, that their scholarship equipped them for service as their service enriched their scholarship. Pericles once said of Athens that it differed from other states in that it regarded the man who held himself aloof from public affairs not as quiet but as useless. Almost, though not quite—it should not be quite the same may be said of the Faculty of Political Science.

You see I have, despite my disclaimer of intention, been toasting the past. I would do more. The loss of a great scholar whether by retirement or resignation or death is always irreparable. Someone else may take his chair, may succeed to his subject, though not even that always happens. But nobody ever takes his place. He would not be a great scholar if his place could be taken. We have had losses from time to time with the results I have just mentioned, and so the company with the passing of the years gradually changes in personnel, in point of attack, in point of specific interest, in method of approach. It could not be otherwise, and those who have gone before would not wish it otherwise. They need no reflectors, no echoes. And well they know that each scholar must with his own hands laboriously carve his niche in the huge hall of human fame, and that the work of carving is not the work of a day or a year, but of a life. The spirit alone remains unaltered—the spirit of fearless and unrelenting search for social truth and of devotion to the high and precious ideals of scholarship.

And so, Mr. President, while with all my heart and soul I toast our honorable past and the achievements that have gone into its making, I also hail with satisfaction our honorable present, and feast with great confidence the honor of our future. [Applause.]

PRESIDENT BUTLER said in conclusion:

This notable and memorable evening comes to its end. My dear Professor Burgess, may I, for all this company, say once more to you what a satisfaction, what a deep satisfaction, your presence and your words yesterday and today have given us. As to our younger members who are personally known to you for the first time, we, their elders, may well feel that we have offered them a benefaction. We only say, my dear Teacher, Au revoir! As you go back to your quiet home, your books and your reflections, it will continue to be your spirit, your teaching, your ideals that will guide and inspire us, as we set out on the second half-century of the study of what Mr. Oliver has so charmingly described as The Endless Adventure, the government of men. [Applause.]

SourceColumbia University Quarterly. Vol. 22 (December 1930), pp. 380-396.

Image Source: John W. Burgess in Universities and their Sons, Vol. 2. Boston: R. Herndon Company, 1899,  p. 481. Colorized by Economics in the Rear-view Mirror.

Categories
Economists Harvard

Harvard. Application for PhD candidacy. Edward S. Mason, 1923

Below you will find a transcription of the paper trail of Edward Sagendorph Mason that documents the satisfaction of the requirements for his Ph.D. in economics (Harvard, 1925). 

Understatement is almost an art form in the hands of the chairman (Professor Frank W. Taussig) of Mason’s final doctoral examination  that followed acceptance of his dissertation: “His showing was highly creditable, even brilliant”.

_______________________

HARVARD UNIVERSITY
DIVISION OF HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, AND ECONOMICS

Application for Candidacy for the Degree of Ph.D.

[Note: Boldface used to indicate printed text of the application; italics used to indicate the handwritten entries]

I. Full Name, with date and place of birth.

Edward Sagendorph Mason, Clinton, Iowa. Feb. 22, 1899.

II. Academic Career: (Mention, with dates inclusive, colleges or other higher institutions of learning attended; and teaching positions held.)

University of Kansas 1916-’19
Harvard (graduate school) one year 1919-’20
Oxford University (Lincoln College) 1920-’23

III. Degrees already attained. (Mention institutions and dates.)

A.B. Kansas 1919
M.A. Harvard 1920
B. Litt. Oxford 1923

IV. General Preparation. (Indicate briefly the range and character of your undergraduate studies in History, Economics, Government, and in such other fields as Ancient and Modern Languages, Philosophy, etc.)

30-40 hours in Economics (Theory – Econ. Hist. – Banking – Hist. of Theory)
Political theory – American government.
English History – Modern French History.
French – 3 years.
English literature – 20-30 hours.

V. Department of Study. (Do you propose to offer yourself for the Ph.D., “History,” in “Economics,” or in “Political Science”?)

Economics

VI. Choice of Subjects for the General Examination. (State briefly the nature of your preparation in each subject, as by Harvard courses, courses taken elsewhere, private reading, teaching the subject, etc., etc.)

  1. Economic Theory. – Econ 11 at Harvard. Elementary and advanced courses at Kansas. – Reading and lectures in England and Germany.
    History of Theory (from Plato & Aristotle). Elementary course at Kansas – Reading and lectures at Oxford
  2. Statistics. – Graduate course at Harvard. Additional Reading.
  3. Public Finance. – Graduate course at Harvard.
  4. Economic History of England and the United States. – Elementary course in U.S. Econ. History at Kansas. Lectures and reading at Oxford.
  5. American Government and Constitutional Law. – Elementary course in Am. Gov. at Kansas. Graduate course in Const. Law at Harvard. Additional reading.
  6. International Trade

VII. Special Subject for the special examination.

International Trade

VIII. Thesis Subject. (State the subject and mention the instructor who knows most about your work upon it.)

Dumping – A Study of Certain International Trade Practices. England, Germany and the United States (B. Litt. Dissertation at Oxford in this subject. May submit same at Harvard.)
Professor Taussig.

IX. Examinations. (Indicate any preferences as to the time of the general and special examinations.)

General Examination. June 10th or after.
Special Examination. Next year.

X. Remarks

Attendance at Oxford makes it impossible for me to present myself before June 10th at the earliest.

Signature of a member of the Division certifying approval of the above outline of subjects.

[signed] F. W. Taussig

*   *   *   [Last page of application] *   *   *

[Not to be filled out by the applicant]

Name: Edward S. Mason

Approved: May 28, 1923

Ability to use French certified by C. J. Bullock. Oct 3, 1923.

Ability to use German certified by  C. J. Bullock. Oct. 3, 1923.

Date of general examination November 27, 1923. Passed. F.W. Taussig, ch[airman]

Thesis received 22 December 1924.

Read by Professors Taussig, Young, Williams.

Approved 14 January 1925.

Date of special examination 22 January 1925. Passed F.W.T.

Recommended for the Doctorate [left blank]

Degree conferred 24 February 1925

Remarks.  [left blank]

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

Record of E. S. Mason in the
Graduate School of Arts and Sciences

1919-20
Economics 11
[Economic Theory. Prof. Taussig]
A
Economics 31
[Public Finance, Prof. Bullock]
A minus
Economics 41
[Statistics: Theory and Analysis, Asst. Prof. Day]
B plus
Government 19
[American Constitutional Law,
Mr. MacLeish]
A
A.M.  1920

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

Dean not amused by late application

28 April 1923

My dear Mr. Mason:

Your application requesting for arrangements for a general examination this year has just been received. I am rather surprised that you should hand it in at such a late date and expect us to meke such arrangements. The list of examinations has been scheduled and printed for some weeks, and we cannot guarantee examinations for anyone after the first of June as it is exceedingly difficult to secure the presence of all the members of the examining comittee in Cambridge on the same day after the close of the lecture period. If you will indicate definitely the date of your return, which you mention vaguely in your letter, we shall try, however to arrange a committee for you at that time. Nothing can be promised, but we shall try to do what we can. I appreciate the convenience to you of taking the general examination this year, but I beg to remind you that due notice should be given of your plan of study and of your application for a general examination.

Very truly yours,
[unsigned carbon copy]

Edward S. Mason

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

Mason responds to the Dean regarding an early date for his general examination

Lincoln College,
Oxford.

May 9, 1923.

Dean C. H. Haskins,
Harvard University.

My dear Sir –

If it is convenient for you and for the examiners I should like to take the Ph.D. general examination (Economics) on June 12th. I am writing to Professor Bullock, my examiner in French and German, asking to be allowed to present myself June 11th for the language examinations.

May I emphasize again that if it causes the slightest inconvenience to yourself or the examiners, I should very much like to have the examination postponed till October or November, since I intend to be at Harvard next year in any case.

Thanking you for the trouble you have taken.

I am,

Very Truly Yours,
[signed] Edward S. Mason

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

Division Memo Regarding Planned General Examination (undated)

HARVARD UNIVERSITY
(INTER-DEPARTMENTAL CORRESPONDENCE SHEET)

Cambridge, Massachusetts

Edward S. Mason

June 10, or after.

  1. [Taussig] Economic Theory
  2. [Bullock] History of Theory (from Plato to Aristotle)
  3. [Crum] Statistics
  4. [Burbank] Public Finance
  5. [Usher] Economic History of England and the United States
  6. [Holcombe] American Government and Constitutional Law.

Special field: International Trade

Thesis being done with Professor Taussig.
Professor Taussig has signed the application.

French and German not certified.

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

22 May 1923

My dear Mr. Mason;

In view of the difficulty of arranging an examination so late in the year, and also in view of the fact that you have not satisfied your French and Gorman requirement, I think it would be better if the examination went over till fall. There will be no difficulty in arranging an examination for you early in October, if you so desire.

  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

Certification of reading knowledge
of French and German

HARVARD UNIVERSITY
Department of Economics

Cambridge, Massachusetts
October 3, 1923.

Dear Haskins:

I have examined Mr. E. S. Mason, and find that he has such a knowledge of French and German as we require of candidates for the doctor’s degree.

Very truly yours,
[signed]
Charles J. Bullock

Dean C. H. Haskins

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

General exam postponed

21 November 1925

My dear Mr. Mason:

I am sorry to have to tell you that I have just now received a telegram from Professor Taussig from Yonkers, New York, saying that he has been detained by the sudden death of his brother, and that your examination would have to be postponed. I will let you know as soon as I hear anything further from him,

Very truly yours,
Secretary of the Division.

Mr. E. S. Mason

[Note: Frank Taussig’s brother, mayor Walter Morris Taussig of Yonkers, New York, committed suicide on Nov. 21, 1923.]

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

New Date for General Examination

23 November 1923

My dear Mr. Mason:

Your general examination is to be held on Tuesday, 27 November, at 4 p.m., in Upper Massachusette Hall.

Very truly yours.
Secretary of the Division.

Mr. E. S. Mason

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

General examination passed

HARVARD UNIVERSITY
Department of Economics

Cambridge, Massachusetts
November 30, 1923.

Dear Haskins:

As Chairman of the Committee appointed to conduct the general examination of Edward S. Mason, I have to report that Mr. Mason passed the examination by unanimous vote of the Committee.

Very truly yours,
[signed]
F. W. Taussig

Dean C. H. Haskins

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

Thesis accepted, but…

15 January 1925

My dear Mr. Mason:

I am happy to inform you that your thesis has been accepted. Under ordinary circumstances we should be glad to arrange your special examination as soon as practicable, but I cannot guarantee presence of a committee during the midyear examination period and the time is now too short to arrange
an examination in the next few days. Moreover, I do not see how you can be admitted to the final examination until you present suitable evidence of your graduate study elsewhere and you have been accepted by the authorities of the Graduate School as a candidate for the Doctorate. I understand from Dr. Robinson that the papers which you were to submit in support of your application for the Ph.D. have not yet been filed.

Sincerely yours,
[Initialed] C. H. H.

Mr. E. S. Mason

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

Papers in order, so special examination
can take place

16 January 1925

My dear Mr. Mason:

Since you have now straightened out the matter concerning which Professor Haskins wrote you yesterday, we are arranging your special examination for Thursday, 22 January, at 4 p.m. The committee will consist of Professors Taussig (chairman), Young, Williams, and Persons. I trust that this will be convenient for you. I will let you know about the place later.

Very truly yours,
[unsigned carbon copy]
Secretary of the Division.

Dr. E. S. Mason

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

Date and committee
for special examination

19 January 1925

My dear Mr. Mason:

This is to remind you that your special examination for the Ph.D. in Economics is to be held on Thursday, 22 January, at 4 p.m., in Widener U. The committee will consist of Professors Taussig (chairman), Young, Williams, and Persons.

Very truly yours,
[unsigned carbon copy]
Secretary of the Division.

Dr. E. S. Mason

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

Special examination passed

HARVARD UNIVERSITY
Department of Economics

Cambridge, Massachusetts
January 27, 1925.

Dear Haskins:

I have to report that Edward S. Mason passed his special examination for the Ph.D. degree on Thursday, January 22, by unanimous vote of the Committee. His showing was highly creditable, even brilliant.

Very truly yours,
[signed]
F. W. Taussig

Dean C. H. Haskins

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

Source: Harvard University Archives. Division of History, Government & Economics. PhD. Examinations, Box 6: 1924-26.

Image Source: Portrait of Edward S. Mason included in the Harvard Class Album 1932.

Categories
Exam Questions Harvard Sociology

Harvard. Enrollment and exam questions for principles of sociology. J.A. Field, 1906-1907

 

Thomas Nixon Carver was on a European sabbatical with his wife and three children during the academic year 1906-07 so substitutes were needed to cover his courses on sociology, agriculture and income distribution. The graduate student James A. Field took over the principles of sociology course in Carver’s absence.

Note: Materials from some courses have already been transcribed and posted. Whenever that is the case, I’ll just add a link to the relevant post. Falling between Economics 1 and Economics 3 was Frank W. Taussig’s course, Economics 2 (“Principles of Economics–Second Course”). It was the “advanced” economic theory course in the curriculum.

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Previous Posts about James A. Field

Chicago. Decennial Harvard Class Report of associate professor of political economy James A. Field, ABD, 1913.

Harvard. Economics Graduate School Records of James Alfred Field, ABD. 1903-1911.

__________________________

Course Enrollment
1906-07

Economics 3. Mr. J.A. Field. — Principles of Sociology. Theories of Social Progress.

Total 44: 4 Graduates, 9 Seniors, 16 Juniors, 11 Sophomores, 4 Others.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College, 1906-1907, p. 70.

__________________________

HARVARD UNIVERSITY
ECONOMICS 3

Mid-year Examination, 1906-07

I.

  1. [Elective reading(s)]
    1. Name the author and the title of the book which you chose for elective reading (or of each of the books, if your reading involved more than one).
    2. Indicate and briefly describe that which seems to you the central thought or the most interesting thought in the book (or in each of the books) thus read.
    3. Criticise the book (or one of the books) with regard to both merits and defects, giving special attention to the part you have described in your answer to question (b) above.

II
Omit one question of this group.

  1. What do you consider to be the true conception of social progress?
    To what extent does social progress in this sense promote the welfare of individuals?
  2. What is an acquired character?
    Assuming that acquired characters are not inherited, in what ways is that fact advantageous for society?
    Does this assumed non-inheritance of acquired characters become more advantageous or less advantageous as civilization advances?
  3. Describe the three stages traced by Comte in the progress of human society.
    Is Comte’s scheme in harmony with Kidd’s belief regarding the conditions of progress?
  4. What is meant by social heredity?
    Show the relation between social heredity and the theories of Baldwin, Fiske, and Tarde which have been considered in this course.

III
Omit one question of this group.

  1. What is Buckle’s conclusion as to the relative importance or moral and the intellectual factors of progress, and on what reasons is his conclusion based?
    Do you accept his conclusion and his reasoning as correct?
  2. How may self-interest act as a socializing influence?
  3. In what sense can a social mind be said to exist?
    How is it related to the individual minds of the members of society?
  4. What is religion, according to Kidd?
    How much has it in common with “the struggle for the life others”? How much has it in common with Idealization?
    Would Kidd agree that the function of all religions is to reconcile us to the inevitable?

Source: Harvard University Archives. Harvard University. Mid-year Examinations, 1852-1943. Box 7, Bound Volume: Examination Papers, Mid-Years 1906-07.

__________________________

ECONOMICS 3

Year-end Examination, 1906-07

[Omit one question.]

  1. Briefly explain:
    1. Exogamy.
    2. Anthropomorphism.
    3. Refraction of Imitation.
    4. Vicarious Leisure.
    5. General Social Sanction.
  2. What are the functions which are organized in the institution of the family?
    Describe the Religious-Proprietary Family.
  3. Criticise Spencer’s antithesis of the militant and industrial types of society and compare it with Robinson’s theory of the relation between war and economics.
  4. What is the Standard of Living?
    For what reasons, and under what conditions, is a high standard of living desirable?
  5. Compare economic competition with the biological struggle for existence.
  6. What are the relations of cause and effect which connect competition, specialization and capitalism?
  7. Explain and criticise Veblen’s theory of the Instinct of Workmanship.
  8. Discuss the relation of women to the competitive process, to conservatism and reform, to religion and to the institution of the leisure class.
    How do you explain the psychic differences between men and women which this discussion suggests? To what extent do you regard these differences as merely the result of social conventions?

Source: Harvard University Archives. Harvard University, Examination Papers, 1873-1915. Box 8, Bound vol. Examination Papers 1906-07 (HUC 7000.25), pp. 27-28.

Image Source: Original black-and-white image from the Special Diplomatic Passport Application by James Alfred Field (January 1918). Cropped and colorized by Economics in the Rear-view Mirror. (Note: left third of the image is slightly distorted because of a transparent plastic strip used to hold pages in the imaging process)

Categories
Exam Questions Harvard Principles

Harvard. Enrollments, staffing, exams for principles of economics. Taussig, Bullock, Andrew. 1906-1907

It is now time to begin posting transcriptions of course material for the Harvard academic year 1906-07. Sometimes, even for the curator of Economics in the Rear-view Mirror, this becomes a tedious task. Still, the opportunity to assemble a long time series of economics exams into searchable text for one of the leading economics departments has the virtue of being steady work. 

In the beginning… there is the undergraduate principles of economics course and that is the subject of this post. Subsequent posts more or less follow the course numbering used at the time by Harvard.

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Taussig explains the course structure

In a letter Aug 8, 1906 to E.R.A. Seligman at Columbia describing how Economics 1 was taught we learn that Frank Taussig gave the first semester lectures and his younger colleagues, Charles J. Bullock and A. Piatt Andrew split the second semester’s lectures between themselves. The textbooks used in the course were “Mill, Walker, and Seager.” Taussig also gave himself credit for introducing the course structure of having a common set of lectures and small-section work for discussion and exercises.

________________________

Course Enrollment
1906-07

Economics 1. Professor [Frank William] Taussig and Asst. Professors [Charles Jesse] Bullock and [Abram Piatt] Andrew, assisted by Messrs [Selden Osgood] Martin, [Frank Richardson] Mason, G. R. [George Randall] Lewis, [Charles Phillips] Huse, and [Arthur Norman] Holcombe. — Principles of Economics.

Total 392: 1 Graduate, 15 Seniors, 43 Juniors, 252 Sophomores, 50 Freshmen, 31 Others.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College, 1906-1907, p. 70.

________________________

ECONOMICS 1
Mid-year Examination, 1906-07

Arrange your answers strictly in the order of the questions.

  1. Explain briefly what is meant by, — free goods; public goods; utility; marginal utility; productive labor.
  2. Explain the relation between, — the rate of interest; the selling price of land; the capitalization of monopolies; vested rights.
  3. What is meant by urban site rent? Does such rent differ from the rent of agricultural land? If so, in what essentials? If not, why not?
  4. Are business profits a return different in kind from wages, according to Mill? Seager? the instructor in the course?
  5. Is a high birth-rate to be regarded with anxiety? a low birth-rate? a high death-rate? a low death-rate? State (in round numbers per 1000 of population) what you would regard as high and low rates.
  6. Would you expect the price of a commodity to fall if its cost of production were lowered? If so, under what conditions? If not, why not?
    Would you expect the cost of producing a commodity to be lowered if its price fell? If so, under what conditions? If not, why not?
  7. Wherein had immigration into the United States during the decade just passed differed from immigration in earlier times; and what effect has recent immigration had (a) on the general rate of wages, (b) on wages in particular occupations?
  8. Explain the connection between, — collective bargaining; the closed shop; the open union.
  9. Suppose socialism, in the form proposed by Fourier, were adopted: how would wages, rent, interest, business profits, be affected? What if socialism, as outlined by modern writers, were adopted?

Source: Harvard University Archives. Harvard University. Mid-year Examinations, 1852-1943. Box 7, Bound Volume: Examination Papers, Mid-Years 1906-07.

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ECONOMICS 1
Year-end Examination, 1905-06

I.
Answer three questions.

  1. Does the value of a commodity depend on its utility? Does the price of a commodity depend on its value?
  2. Explain briefly what is meant by (a) the sweating system, (b) producers’ coöperation, (c) collective bargaining.
  3. Suppose a great increase in the supply of (a) gold, (b) silver, (c) wheat: would the values of these three articles be affected in the same way and in the same degree?
  4. What is the nature of the income received by (a) an owner of lodging house who lets rooms to students; (b) an owner of shares a “trust”; (c) an author receiving royalty on a copy-righted book; (d) a mine owner receiving a royalty (so much per ton) on minerals extracted from his mine.

II.
Answer three questions.

  1. Describe the various forms of credit which serve as means of exchange. Does their existence afford any disproof of the “quantity theory”? Explain why or why not.
  2. If there were no legal restrictions, would anything tend to prevent an over-expansion (a) of deposits, (b) of notes?
    If the present legal restrictions on note issue were abolished, what substitutes would you suggest?
  3. The imports of the United States from Brazil permanently exceed our exports to that country. What movements of specie between these countries are involved? The total exports of merchandise from the United States permanently exceed its imports. What movements of specie to or from this country are involved?
  4. Given mint par with England 4.86 2/3, France 5.18, Germany 0.952. What conditions with regard to American trade are indicated by the following quotations of exchange in New York, 4.84, 5.20, 0.945? How ought these rates to stand if the American dollar were to fall to half its present gold value?

III.
Answer three questions.

  1. According: to the principles laid down by Adam Smith and Mill, what changes should be made in the system of taxation employed by our national government?
  2. Compare the history of the income tax in the United States with the history of the tax in two European countries.
  3. What are the principal arguments for and against the proposal to levy progressive income taxes in order to prevent “undue” concentration of wealth? What are the arguments for and against using progressive inheritance taxes for the same purpose?
  4. Should a national debt be extinguished? Should municipal debts be extinguished? (In each case state fully the reasons for your answer.)

Source: Harvard University Archives. Harvard University, Examination Papers, 1873-1915. Box 8, Bound vol. Examination Papers 1906-07; Papers Set for Final Examinations in History, Government, Economics,…,Music in Harvard College (June, 1907), pp. 24-25.

Image Source: Frank W. Taussig in the Harvard Class Album, 1906. Colorized by Economics in the Rear-view Mirror.

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Economists Harvard Transcript

Harvard. Application for PhD candidacy. James Waterhouse Angell, 1921

The empirical questions behind most of the collection of archival artifacts found here at Economics in the Rear-view Mirror can be reduced to i) what was being taught ii) who was teaching it, and iii) what was the pattern of the courses actually taken by young economists. These artifacts can be thought of as occupying cell(s) in a matrix of year by academic institution, e.g. this post deals with question (iii) and will be filed in the Harvard, early 1920’s cell.

James Waterhouse Angell (1898-1986) was a Harvard and Chicago trained economist who joined the Columbia faculty upon receiving his Ph.D. from Harvard in 1924. He was a member of Columbia’s faculty for over forty years, interrupted by government service during World War II at the War Production Board and the Foreign Economics Administration.  More about his life and career can be read in his New York Times obituary (April 1, 1986)

With this post we have the record for Angell in Harvard’s Division of History, Government, and Economics. It provides us with a wealth of information about his academic training. There will be a flow of such records for other graduate students that promises to match the flow of syllabi and exams, the stock of which constitute the core of archival material.

 You  should subscribe to Economics in the Rear-view Mirror if you are working on the history of economics. To do so scroll down (or search “Subscribe” on this page from your web browser).

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Autobiographical snippet

Angell’s personal statement in the 25th year anniversary report of the Harvard Class of 1918

_______________________

HARVARD UNIVERSITY
DIVISION OF HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, AND ECONOMICS

Application for Candidacy for the Degree of Ph.D.

[Note: Boldface used to indicate printed text of the application; italics used to indicate the handwritten entries]

I. Full Name, with date and place of birth.

James Waterhouse Angell. May 20, 1898. Chicago.

II. Academic Career: (Mention, with dates inclusive, colleges or other higher institutions of learning attended; and teaching positions held.)

Undergraduate: Harvard 1914-18. Graduate: University of Chicago, March 1919-June 1920; Harvard, September 1920-date. Teaching: Assistant in Economics, Univ. of Chicago, October 1919-June 1920.

III. Degrees already attained. (Mention institutions and dates.)

A.B. Harvard, 1918. [magna cum laude]

IV. General Preparation. (Indicate briefly the range and character of your undergraduate studies in History, Economics, Government, and in such other fields as Ancient and Modern Languages, Philosophy, etc.) In case you are a candidate for the degree in History, state the number of years you have studied preparatory and college Latin.)

History. Harvard: Hist. A, 30a. Government. Univ. of Chicago: Elementary Comp. Govt. Economics. Harvard: Economics A, 2a, 2b, 4b, 5a, 5b. Univ. of Chicago: Labor Problems, Money and Banking, Statistics.

Greek: Harvard: Greek G, A, 2, 8. Latin. Harvard: Latin B, 8. French. Harvard: French 2. Philosophy. Univ. of Chicago: Social and Political Philosophy. Psychology. Harvard: Psychology A, Univ. of Chicago: Social Psychology.

V. Department of Study. (Do you propose to offer yourself for the Ph.D., “History,” in “Economics,” or in “Political Science”?)

Economics

VI. Choice of Subjects for the General Examination. (State briefly the nature of your preparation in each subject, as by Harvard courses, courses taken elsewhere, private reading, teaching the subject, etc., etc.)

  1. Economic Theory and Its History. Harvard: Economics A, 11, 14; Univ. of Chicago: History of Econ. Thought. Teaching: Univ. of Chicago: 2 quarters of elementary theory, 1920.
  2. Economic History since 1750. Harvard: Economics 2a and 2b.
  3. Public FinanceHarvard: Economics 5a, 5b, 31
  4. Money and Banking. Harvard: Economics 38. Univ. of Chicago: Elementary Money & Banking. Also private reading.
  5. International Trade and Tariff Policy. Harvard: Economics 33; and private reading.
  6. [Constitutional] History of the U.S., 1789-1914Univ. of Chicago. 3 quarters of graduate study. (A. D. Mr. Laughlin)

VII. Special Subject for the special examination.

Special subject either Economic Theory or Public Finance; to be specified later. Money and Banking

VIII. Thesis Subject. (State the subject and mention the instructor who knows most about your work upon it.)

International Price Levels (With Professors Taussig and Young)

IX. Examinations. (Indicate any preferences as to the time of the general and special examinations.)

General: Last week in October, 1921.

X. Remarks

[Left blank]

Signature of a member of the Division certifying approval of the above outline of subjects.

[signed] Edmund E. Day

*   *   *   [Last page of application] *   *   *

[Not to be filled out by the applicant]

Name: James W. Angell

Approved: April 29, 1921

Ability to use French certified by Charles J. Bullock. 10 March, 1922 B.S.M.

Ability to use German certified by Charles J. Bullock, 10 March, 1922 B.S.M.

Date of general examination June 2, 1922 Passed A.A.Y.

Thesis received Oct. 15, 1923

Read by Professors Taussig, Young, and Persons

Approved October 29, 1921

Date of special examination Thursday, March 6, 1924. Passed A.A. Young 

Recommended for the Doctorate[left blank]

Degree conferred  [left blank]

Remarks.  [left blank]

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

Record of James Waterhouse Angell in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences of Harvard University

1920-21
Economics 11.
[Economic Theory, Prof. Taussig]
A
Economics 14
[History and Literature of Economics to the year 1848, Prof. Bullock]
A minus
Economics 31
[Public Finance, Prof. Bullock]
A
Economics 331 [half course]
[International Trade and Tariff Problems, Prof. Taussig]
A
Economics 382 [half course]
[Selected Monetary Problems, Prof. Young]
A
Attained the degree of Master of Arts.
1921-22
Economics 20 (F.W.T.)
[Economic Research (for Ph.D. candidates)]
A

Note: A transcript can also be found in Harvard University Archives, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. Record Cards of Students, 1895-1930, Aab—Belcher (UAV 161.2722.5). File I, Box 1, Record Card of James Waterhouse Angell.

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

HARVARD UNIVERSITY
Committee on Economic Research
Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
Charles J. Bullock, Chairman

Charles F. Adams
Nicholas Biddle
Frederic H. Curtiss
Wallace B. Donham
Ogden L. Mills
Eugene V. R. Thayer

W.M. Persons, Editor
Review of Economic Statistics

J.B. Hubbard, Editor
Harvard Economic Service

F.Y. Presley
General Manager

March 10, 1922.

Professor Charles H. Haskins,
23 University Hall,
Cambridge, Mass.

This is to certify that I have examined Mr. J. W. Angell and find that he has such a knowledge of French and German as we require of candidates for the doctor’s degree.

[signed] Charles J. Bullock

CJB/AMB

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

HARVARD UNIVERSITY
DIVISION OF HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, AND ECONOMICS

Cambridge, Massachusetts
6 June 1922

I beg to report that Mr. James W. Angell passed the General Examination in Economics held on Friday, 2 June. Mr. Angell’s examination clearly earned a pass, but it is proper to say that the examination was not as distinguished and the margin was not as large as Mr. Angell’s brilliant course record indicated it would be.

[signed by D.C. for] Allyn A. Young

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

[Carbon copy]

26 February 1924

My dear Professor Young:

We are arranging J.W. Angell’s special examination for Thursday, 6 March, at 4 p.m. I will let you know the place later. The committee will consist of Professors Taussig, Williams, Sprague, and yourself as chairman.

Very truly yours,
Secretary of the Division.

Professor A. A. Young

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

HARVARD UNIVERSITY
DIVISION OF HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, AND ECONOMICS

Cambridge, Massachusetts
March 7, 1924

Dear Haskins:

On behalf of the committee appointed to conduct the special examination of Mr. J. W. Angell, I beg to report that Mr. Angell successfully passed the examination. I may add that the examination as a whole was unusually satisfactory.

Very truly yours,
[signed by k. for] Allyn A. Young

Dean C. H. Haskins

Source: Harvard University Archives. Division of History, Government, and Economics. Ph.D. exams and records of candidates, study plans, lists, etc. pre-1911-1942. Box 5. Folder “J. W. Angell.”

_______________________

Annotated Typescript for
Division of History, Government, and Economics
Examinations for the Degree of Ph.D. 1923-1924
JAMES WATERHOUSE ANGELL.

SPECIAL EXAMINATION in Economics, passed. Thursday, March 6, 1924.

GENERAL EXAMINATION passed June 2, 1922.

ACADEMIC HISTORY: Harvard College, 1914-18; University of Chicago, March, 1919, to June, 1920; Harvard Graduate School, 1920-23. A.B., 1918; A.M., 1921. Assistant in Economics, University of Chicago, 1919-20; Tutor in the Division of History, Government, and Economics, Harvard, 1921-22; Frederick Sheldon Travelling Fellow, Harvard, 1922-23; Instructor in Economics and Tutor in the Division of History, Government, and Economics, Harvard, 1923-4.

GENERAL SUBJECTS: 1. Economic Theory and Its History. 2. Economic History since 1750. 3. Public Finance. 4. Money and Banking. 5. International Trade and Tariff Policy. 6. American History since 1789.

SPECIAL SUBJECT: Money and Banking.

COMMITTEE: Professors Young (chairman), Taussig, Williams,
and Sprague.

THESIS SUBJECT: The Theory of International Prices and its History.

COMMITTEE ON THESIS: Professors Taussig, Young, and Persons.

Source: Harvard University Archives. Division of History, Government, and Economics. Ph.D. exams and records of candidates, study plans, lists, etc. pre-1911-1942. Box 5. Unmarked Envelope/Folder

_______________________

Image Source:  James Waterhouse Angell’s July 18, 1922 U.S. passport application. National Archives.

 

Categories
Economic History Exam Questions Harvard Suggested Reading Syllabus

Harvard. Reading list and final exam for U.S. economic and financial history. Taussig and Gay, 1905-1906

Assistant Professor Oliver Mitchell Wentworth Sprague taught the Harvard course “Economic History of the United States”/ “Economic and Financial History of the United States” in 1901-02 (with James Horace Patten), 1902-03, 1903-04, and 1904-05. The course was taken over in 1905-06 by Frank William Taussig and Edwin Francis Gay after Sprague left for a full professorship at the Imperial University of Japan.

__________________________

Course Enrollment
1905-06

Economics 6 2hf. Professor Taussig and Asst. Professor Gay. — Economic and Financial History of the United States.

Total 79: 14 Graduates, 15 Seniors, 37 Juniors, 10 Sophomores, 3 Others.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College, 1905-1906, p. 72.

__________________________

READING FOR ECONOMICS 6
(1905-6)

Prescribed reading is indicated by an asterisk (*).

1. COLONIAL PERIOD.

*Ashley, Commercial Legislation of England and the American Colonies, Q.J.E., Vol. XIV, pp. 1-30; printed also in Surveys, pp. 309-335.

Schmoller, Mercantile System, pp. 57-80.

Beer, Commercial Policy of England, pp. 1-158.

Rabbeno, American Commercial Policy, pp. 3-91.

Eggleston, Agriculture and Commerce in the Colonies, The Century Magazine, Jan. and June, 1884, Vol. V, pp. 431-449; Vol. VI, pp. 234-256.

2. COMMERCE AND MANUFACTURES, 1776-1815.

*Hill, First Stages of the Tariff Policy of the United States, Amer Econ. Assn. Pub., Vol. VIII, pp. 107-132.

Pitkin, Statistical View of the United States, ed. 1835, ch. ix, pp. 368-412.

Rabbeno, American Commercial Policy, pp. 287-324, 95-145.

Hamilton, Report on Manufactures, in Taussig’s State Papers and Speeches on the Tariff, pp. 1-108.

3. REVOLUTIONARY AND NATIONAL FINANCE – WESTWARD MOVEMENT, 1776-1815.

*Dewey, Financial History of the United States, chs. ii-vi, pp. 33-141.

Bullock, Essays on the Monetary History of the United States, pp. 60-78.

Hamilton, Reports on Public Credit, Amer. State Papers, Finance, Vol. 1, pp. 15-37, 64-67.

Turner, Significance of the Frontier in American History, in Report of Amer. Hist. Assn., 1893, pp. 199-227.

Semple, American History and its Geographical Conditions, chs. iv, v, pp. 52-92.

4. FINANCE AND BANKING, 1815-1860.

*Dewey, Financial History, pp. 223-237, 252-262.

Sumner, Andrew Jackson, ed. 1886, pp. 224-249, 257-276, 291-342.

Catterall, The Second Bank of the United States, chs. xvi-vviii, pp. 376-403, 430-452.

Conant, History of Modern Banks of Issue, ch. xiv, pp. 310-347.

White, Money and Banking, chs. ix-xii, pp. 324-361.

5. TARIFFS AND MANUFACTURES, 1815-1860.

*Taussig, Tariff History, pp. 1-154.

Taussig, State Papers and Speeches on the Tariff, pp. 108-385.

Rabbeno, American Commercial Policy, 146-199, 325-383.

6. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS, 1815-1860.

*Callender, Early Transportation and Banking Enterprises, Q.J.E., Vol. XVII, pp. 111-162.

Chevalier, Society, Manners, and Politics in the United States, chs. vii, xx, xxi, pp. 80-87, 209-276.

Pitkin, Statistical View (1835), Vol. XII, pp. 531-581.

Gallatin, Plan of Internal Improvements, Amer. State Papers, Misc., Vol. I.

Tanner, Railways and Canals of the United States. See, especially, the map.

7. LAND POLICY AND AGRICULTURE, 1815-1860.

*Hart, Practical Essays on American Government, pp. 233-257.

*Hammond, Cotton Industry, ch. iii, pp. 67-119.

Donaldson, Public Domain.

Sato, History of the Land Question in the United States, Johns Hopkins University Studies, 4th series, nos. 7-9, pp. 127-181.

8. POPULATION AND SLAVERY, 1815-1860.

*Cairnes, Slave Power, chs. ii, iii, v, pp. 34-93, 120-150.

Hammond, Cotton Industry, ch. ii, pp. 34-60.

Semple, American History and its Geographic Conditions, ch. ix, pp. 150-177.

9. FINANCE, BANKING, AND CURRENCY PROBLEMS, 1860-1900.

*Dewey, Financial History, chs. xii, xiii, xx, pp. 271-330, 463-473.

*Noyes, Thirty Years of American Finance, chs. i, ii, iii, x, pp. 1-72, 234-254.

Taussig, Silver Situation, pp. 1-157.

Dunbar, National Banking System, Q.J.E., Vol. XII, pp. 1-36.

10. TRANSPORTATION; TARIFF.

*Taussig, Tariff History, pp. 155-230.

Industrial Commission, Vol. XIX, pp. 466-481.

Johnson, American Railway Transportation, chs. ii, ii, v, pp. 13-38, 52-68.

Taussig, Contribution to the Theory of Railway Rates, Q.J.E., Vol. V, pp. 438-465.

Hadley, Railroad Transportation, pp. 24-56.

11. INDUSTRIAL EXPANSION AND TARIFF.

*Taussig, Tariff History, pp. 230-409.

Stanwood, American Tariff Controversies, Vol. II, pp. 243-394.

Taussig, Iron Industry, Q.J.E., Vol. XIV, pp. 143-170, 475-508.

Industrial Commission, Vol. XIX, pp. 485-519, 544-569.

Twelfth United States Census, Vol. IX, pp. 1-16; Vol. X, pp. 723-743.

Taussig, Wool and Woolens, Q.J.E., Vol. VIII, pp. 1-39.

Wright, Wool-growing and the Tariff since 1890, Q.J.E., Vol. XIX, pp. 610-647.

Willoughby, Integration of Industry in the United States, Q.J.E., Vol. XVI, pp. 94-115.

12. AGRICULTURE AND OPENING OF THE FAR WEST.

*Industrial Commission, XIX, pp. 43-123, 134-168.

Hammond, Cotton Industry, Book I, chs. iv-vii, ix, pp. 120-228, 324-356.

Adams, The Granger Movement, North American Review, Vol. CLXXV, pp. 394-424.

13. COMMERCE AND SHIPPING.

*Meeker, Shipping Subsidies, Pol. Sci. Qr., Vol. XX, pp. 594-611.

*Noyes, Recent Economic History of the United States, Q.J.E., Vol. XIX, pp. 167-209.

Wells, Our Merchant Marine, chs. i-v, pp. 1-94.

14. WAGES AND THE LABOR PROBLEM.

*Levasseur, American Workman, pp. 436-509.

Mitchell, Organized Labor.

Industrial Conciliation, National Civic Federation.

Wright, Industrial History of the United States, Part III, pp. 231-322.

15. IMMIGRATION AND THE RACE QUESTION.

*Mayo-Smith, Emigration and Immigration, chs. iii, iv, pp. 33-78.

Tillinghast, Negro in Africa and America, pp. 102-227.

Hoffman, Race Traits and Tendencies of the American Negro, pp. 141-148, 170-176, 310-329.

Washington, Future of the American Negro, pp. 3-244.

Mayo-Smith, Emigration and Immigration, pp. 79-167, 227-283.

Walker, Discussions in Economics and Statistics, Vol. II, pp. 417-434.

Source: Harvard University Archives. Syllabi, course outlines and reading lists in conomics, 1895-2003, Box 1, Folder “Economics, 1905-1906”.

__________________________

ECONOMICS 6
Year-end Examination, 1905-06

  1. Describe the history of the agitation for “cheap money” in the United States; the forms assumed both before and after 1860, its causes and the probability of its recurrence.
  2. Compare critically the financing of the Revolutionary War, the Civil War, and the Spanish War.
  3. (a) Summarize the principal features of our tariff legislation from the close of the Civil War to the Dingley Tariff.
    (b) What has been the effect of the tariffs on the iron and steel industry?
  4. Give the history of the Union Pacific Railroad and its relations to the government.
  5. Account for the changes in the character of the foreign trade of the United States in respect to the excess of imports or of exports.
    Take one of the following questions:
  6. Discuss the significance and causes of the increase of farm tenancy and the rural exodus.
  7. What can you say as to agricultural conditions in the South before and since the Civil War? What about the negro problem?

Source: Harvard University Archives. Harvard University, Examination Papers 1873-1915. Box 8, Bound volume: Examination Papers, 1906-07; Papers Set for Final Examinations in History, Government, Economics,…,Music in Harvard College (June, 1906), pp. 31-32.

Image Source: Portraits of Frank William Taussig and Edwin Francis Gay from the Harvard Class Album 1906.

 

Categories
Exam Questions Harvard Principles

Harvard. Principles of Economics Exam. Taussig et al., 1905-1906

Over the next couple of weeks Economics in the Rear-view Mirror will be posting the printed economics course exams from Harvard for the academic year 1905-06.  Economics in the Rear-View Mirror has already transcribed and posted nearly every economics exam at Harvard University up to this year. You will find links to them in the Catalogue of Artifacts, then use page search for, e.g.,”Exam” to be awed if not shocked by the sheer quantity of material available to you.

________________________

Course Enrollment

Economics 1. Professor [Frank William] Taussig and Asst. Professor [Abram Piatt] Andrew, assisted by Messrs. [Silas Wilder] Howland, [Chester Whitney] Wright, [Seldon Osgood] Martin, [William Hyde] Price, [Frank Richardson] Mason, and [Stuart] Daggett. — Principles of Economics.

Total 470: 1 Graduate, 9 Seniors, 87 Juniors, 266 Sophomores, 63 Freshmen, 44 Others.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College, 1905-1906, p. 72.

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ECONOMICS 1
Mid-year Examination, 1905-06

Arrange your answers strictly in the order of the questions.
Answer nine questions, five from Group I, four from Group II.

Group I

  1. Which of the following would you class as capital:—
    1. stocks of goods in retailers’ hands;
    2. a theatre:
    3. the skill, acquired through training and education, of highly efficient workmen;
    4. agricultural land permanently improved by drainage, embankments and the like.
  2. Explain concisely,
    1. the law of diminishing returns;
    2. intensive and extensive margin of cultivation;
    3. marginal utility.
  3. Suppose all agricultural land to be equally fertile and equally distant from the market; suppose all to be under cultivation: would there be rent? If so, why and where? if not, why not?
  4. Explain in what way the value of monopolized commodities is influenced on the one hand by cost of production, on the other hand by marginal utility.
  5. Explain in what way the value of commodities produced at joint cost is influenced on the one hand by cost of production, on the other hand by marginal utility.
  6. State two different ways in which expense of education and training affects variations of wages in different occupations.

Group II

  1. “The extra gains which any producer or dealer obtains through superior talents for business, or superior business arrangements, are very much of a similar kind [to rent]. . . . All advantages, in fact, which one competitor has over another, whether natural or acquired, whether personal or the result of social arrangements, bring the commodity, so far, into the Third Class, and assimilate the possessor of the advantage to a receiver of rent.” —Mill.
    Explain what is the “third class” of commodities here referred to by Mill; wherein “personal” advantages differ from those which are “the result of social arrangements”; and how far the general doctrine set forth in this extract is found also in Walker and in Seager.
  2. State concisely the residual theory of distribution, as set forth by Walker.
  3. Suppose the number of laborers to increase greatly, the other factors in production (capital, land) remaining unchanged: what changes in wages would ensue, and in what manner would they be brought about, according to Mill? Walker? Seager?
  4. Explain concisely,
    1. the capitalization of rent;
    2. the capitalization of monopoly profits;
    3. the statement that the rate of interest determines the value of land and securities;
    4. innocent investors and acquired rights.
  5. A corporation organized to do a mercantile business buys an expensive city site, erects a building thereon, carries on the operations of buying and selling, and in due time distributes dividends among its stockholders. What is the nature of the return received by the stockholders?

Source: Harvard University Archives. Harvard University. Mid-year Examinations, 1852-1943. Box 7, Bound Volume: Examination Papers, Mid-Years 1905-06.

________________________

ECONOMICS 1
Year-end Examination, 1905-06

Omit one question from each group.

I.

  1. Define capital, and mention two articles of wealth which are always capital, two which never are, and two which sometimes are and sometimes are not.
  2. Under what conditions would there be no economic rent?
  3. Explain briefly the salient influences which will determine the value (1) at any given moment, (2) in the long run, of the following:
    1. an uncopyrighted book,
    2. a copyrighted book,
    3. an ounce of gold.
  4. What are the limits to the price-fixing and profit-earning powers of monopolies? Are there any other conditions which will tend to check the indefinite growth of combinations?

II.

  1. Is it true of all commodities that changes in supply affect their value proportionally? Is it true of the commodity money? If in your opinion there is any difference, explain it.
  2. Can a commodity change its value without changing its price? Can it change its price without changing its value? Suppose the commodity were gold bullion, would your answer vary?
  3. Suppose an increase in the volume of our currency, due to a new issue of silver, what would be the effect upon international trade? Would this effect be lasting? Would your answer depend at all upon the condition of our currency at the time the increase occurred?
  4. If the merchandise imports from England to the United States equalled the exports from the United States to England (a) what would be the state of exchange on London? (b) Would there be any greater advantage to either of the countries engaged in trade?

III.

  1. Would a tariff “for revenue only” differ from a protective tariff, the product of which is entirely devoted to revenue? Has either any advantage over the other?
  2. “A man is of all sorts of luggage the most difficult to be transported.” What is the bearing of this fact upon the theory of international trade?
  3. (a) How are loans affected when the reserve limit (as established either by law or custom) is reached in England, Germany, and in the United States?
    (b) Show whether a system of “combined reserves” is needed in France, England, or Germany.
  4. Arrange the following items in their proper order as they would appear in the statement of a national bank. What criticisms would a bank examiner make? Would these criticisms vary if the bank were situated in New York, Boston, or the town of Lexington?
Loans,

360 thousands of dollars

Capital,

50      “                “       “

Reserve,

50      “                “       “

Real estate,

28      “                “       “

Deposits,

300    “                “       “

Undivided profits,

3        “                “       “

Notes,

115    “                “       “

Other assets,

20      “                “       “

Bonds and stocks,

40      “                “       “

Surplus,

30      “                “       “

Source: Harvard University Archives. Harvard University, Examination Papers 1873-1915. Box 8, Bound volume: Examination Papers, 1906-07Papers Set for Final Examinations in History, Government, Economics,…,Music in Harvard College (June, 1906), pp. 26-27.

Image Source: Portrait of Professor Frank W. Taussig in the Harvard Class Album 1906.

Categories
Economists Harvard

Harvard. Economics Graduate School Records of Jacob Viner. 1914-1922

Records of individual Harvard economics graduate students are strewn across the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, the Division of History, Government, and Economics (formerly Division of History and Political Science), and the Department of Economics at Harvard as well as in the archival papers of their professors or themselves. Seek and sometimes ye shall find.

In this post Economics in the Rear-view Mirror presents transcriptions of the items found in the file for Jacob Viner in the papers of the Division of History, Government, and Economics. We see from the application form (then referred to as a “blank”) that the administrative unit responsible for monitoring the satisfaction of the Ph.D. requirements by degree candidates was the Division. Course records and transcripts were issued by the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences.

An interesting anecdote found in the correspondence included below is that Viner committed the indiscretion of announcing in print the completion of his Ph.D. before he had been properly awarded the degree by Harvard. One wonders if his examination committee let him know that they knew and were, like the Dean of the Division, not amused by his presumption.

_______________________

HARVARD UNIVERSITY
DIVISION OF HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, AND ECONOMICS

Application for Candidacy for the Degree of Ph.D.

[Note: Boldface used to indicate printed text of the application; italics used to indicate the handwritten entries]

I. Full Name, with date and place of birth.

Jacob Viner, Montreal, Canada, May 3rd, 1892.

II. Academic Career: (Mention, with dates inclusive, colleges or other higher institutions of learning attended; and teaching positions held.)

McGill University, Faculty of Arts. Sept. 1911 to May 1914.

III. Degrees already attained. (Mention institutions and dates.)

B.A. McGill University, May 1914.
A.M. Harvard, June 1915.

IV. General Preparation. (Indicate briefly the range and character of your undergraduate studies in History, Economics, Government, and in such other fields as Ancient and Modern Languages, Philosophy, etc.)

History. (1) General Course, (2) History of England, (3) Recent Developments

Government. (1) General Course, (2) Govt of Canada, (3) Social Reform.

Latin. Two college years. — Horace, Tibullus, Caesar, Livy, Cicero.

French. Two college years advanced work.

Philosophy. (1) Logic, (2) History of Ethics, (3) Theory of Ethics.

Economics. (1) Economic History of England, (Canadian Industrial Problems. (3) Money & Banking, and courses listed [below].

V. Department of Study. (Do you propose to offer yourself for the Ph.D., “History,” in “Economics,” or in “Political Science”?)

Economics

VI. Choice of Subjects for the General Examination. (State briefly the nature of your preparation in each subject, as by Harvard courses, courses taken elsewhere, private reading, teaching the subject, etc., etc.)

    1. Economic Theory.
      Elementary & Advanced Courses at McGill.
      11, Ec. 12a (1914-15), Ec. 17, Ec. 7a, Ec 14, at Harvard.
    2. International Trade.
      33 (full course.) Harvard.
    3. Public Finance.
      Course at McGill.
      31, Harvard.
    4. Course at McGill.
      Ec. 8, Ec. 18, Harvard.
    5. Economic History since 1770.
      2a, Ec. 2b, Harvard.
    6. Theory of Value. (Philosophy.).
      Phil 25a

VII. Special Subject for the special examination.

International Trade

VIII. Thesis Subject. (State the subject and mention the instructor who knows most about your work upon it.)

International Balance of Payments
Prof. Taussig

IX. (Indicate any preferences as to the time of the general and special examinations.)

Spring, 1916 (General).

X. Remarks

[Left blank]

Signature of a member of the Division certifying approval of the above outline of subjects.

[signed] F. W. Taussig

*   *   *   [Last page of application] *   *   *

[Not to be filled out by the applicant]

Name: Jacob Viner

Approved: Jan 21, 1916

Ability to use French certified by C. J. Bullock 7 April 1916 D.H.

Ability to use German certified by C. J. Bullock 7 April 1916 D.H.

Date of general examination May 19, 1916 Passed

Thesis received February, 1921

Read by Professors Taussig, Persons, and Young

Approved October 29, 1921

Date of special examination Friday, March 18, 1921

Recommended for the Doctorate January, 1922

Degree conferred February, 1922

Remarks. [Left blank]

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

Record of JACOB VINER in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences of Harvard University

1914-15
Economics 11.
[Economic Theory, Prof. Taussig]
A
Economics 121
[Scope and Methods of Economic Investigation, Prof. Carver]
A-
Economics 17
[Economic Theory: Value and Related Problems, Asst. Prof. Anderson]
A
Economics 33 (full co. [full course])
[International Trade, with special reference to Tariff Problems in the United States, Prof. Taussig]
A
Economics 34
[Problems of Labor, Prof. Ripley]
B-
German A
[Elementary Course]
B+
University Scholar
A.M. at Commencement.
1915-16
Economics 2a1
[European Industry and Commerce in the Nineteenth Century, Prof. Gay]
A-
Economics 2b2
[Economic and Financial History of the United States, Prof. Gay]
abs.
Economics 7a1
[Economic Theory, Prof. Taussig] [Note: this course not included in GSAS record for Viner]
abs.
Economics 81
[Principles of Sociology, Prof. Carver]
A
Economics 14
[History and Literature of Economics to the year 1848, Prof. Bullock]
(A)…mid-year grade, excused from final
Economics 18a2
[Analytical Sociology, Asst. Prof. Anderson]]
credit for residence
Economics 31
[Public Finance, Prof. Bullock]
(A-)…mid-year grade, excused from final
Philosophy 182
[Present Philosophical Tendencies. Materialism, Pragmatism, Idealism, and Realism. Prof. R. B. Perry]
abs.
Philosophy 25a1
[Theory of Value, Prof. R. B. Perry]
A-
Henry Lee Memorial Fellow.

Note: Original record found in Harvard University Archives. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. Record Cards of Students, 1895-1930, Sun—Walls (UAV 161.2722.5). File I, Box 14, Record Card of Jacob Viner.

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

HARVARD UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS

F. W. Taussig
T. N. Carver
W. Z. Ripley
C. J. Bullock
E. F. Gay
W. M. Cole
O. M. W. Sprague
E. E. Day
B. M. Anderson, Jr.
H. L. Gray

Cambridge, Massachusetts
April 7, 1916.

This is to certify that I have examined Mr. J. Viner, and find that he has a good reading knowledge of French and German.

[signed] Charles J. Bullock

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

7 April 1916

Dear Perry:

Could you serve as one of the committee for the General Examination of Jacob Viner on Friday, May 19, at 4 p.m.?

Sincerely yours,
[copy unsigned]

Professor R. B. Perry.

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

Cambridge April 8-‘16

I shall be glad to help out with Viner’s General Exam on May 19.

[signed] R B Perry

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

HARVARD UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS

F. W. Taussig
T. N. Carver
W. Z. Ripley
C. J. Bullock
E. F. Gay
W. M. Cole
O. M. W. Sprague
E. E. Day
B. M. Anderson, Jr.

Cambridge, Massachusetts
May 20, 1916.

Dear Haskins:

I beg to certify that Jacob Viner passed satisfactorily his general examination for the degree of Ph. D. in Economics. I enclose his application for your files.

Very truly yours,
[signed] F. W. Taussig

Dean C. H. Haskins.

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

7 February 1921

Dear Mr. Viner,

Your letter of 22 January gives this office its first information that you plan to be a candidate for the Doctor’s degree this year. Will you kindly fill out and return at once the enclosed blank, which was due 15 January?

If you plan to have your Special Examination arranged in the middle of March, you will have to give a wider margin for an examination of your thesis than you indicate in your letter.

At least a month will be necessary between the receipt of the thesis and the time provisionally set for the examination. In arranging the examinations of non-resident students we try to consider their convenience; but there must be due notice in advance, and due opportunity for reading the thesis in its final form with deliberation.

You raise the question of the subject on which you are to be examined. Does that mean that you desire to change the special field, which on your plan is indicated an International Trade?

If your thesis does not reach us until the first of March, we could doubtless arrange to examine you some Saturday after 1 April; or possibly early in June, at the conclusion of your instruction for the spring quarter.

Yours very truly,
[unsigned copy]

Mr. Jacob Viner.

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

17 February 1921

My dear Professor Persons:

Dean Haskins would be glad if you would serve on the committee to read the thesis of Mr. Jacob Viner, entitled “The Canadian Balance of International Indebtedness, 1900-13.” The thesis will reach you within a few days.

Very truly yours,
[unsigned copy]
Secretary of the Division.

Professor W. M. Persons.

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

17 February 1921

My dear Professor Young:

Dean Haskins would be glad if you would serve on the committee to read the thesis of Mr. Jacob Viner, entitled “The Canadian Balance of International Indebtedness, 1900-13.” The thesis will reach you within a few days.

Very truly yours,
[unsigned copy]
Secretary of the Division.

Professor A. A. Young

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

17 February 1921

My dear Professor Taussig:

Dean Haskins will be very glad if you will read Mr. Jacob Viner’s Ph.D. thesis, which is now in your hands, and he has included Professor Persons among the members of the Committee, as you suggested. Professor Day would appreciate it, however, if he could be relieved from serving on the Committee on account of pressure of work, and Mr. Haskins has appointed Professor Young to read the thesis in his place, provided that the change meets with your approval. I enclose an acceptance slip to be included with the thesis.

Very truly yours,
[unsigned copy]
Secretary of the Division.

Professor F. W. Taussig

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

HARVARD UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS

F. W. Taussig
T. N. Carver
W. Z. Ripley
C. J. Bullock
A. A. Young
W. M. Persons
E. E. Day
J. S. Davis
H. H. Burbank
A. S. Dewing
E. E. Lincoln
A. E. Monroe
A. H. Cole

Cambridge, Massachusetts
February 20, 1921.

Dear Haskins:

Viner is sending me his thesis by instalments.

A previous instalment of considerable size, sent in some time ago, has already been read by Bullock and Day, as well as by myself. Probably we should avoid some waste of energy if these two were put on the thesis committee with myself. Needless to say, this suggestion is to be considered in the light of your apportionment of the general work of thesis reading.

Yesterday over the telephone I suggested on the spur of the moment that Persons might be on the committee. He is thoroly [sic] conversant with the subject, and would be a good member; certainly if Bullock should find it inconvenient to serve.

Sincerely yours,
[signed] F. W. Taussig

Dean C. H. Haskins

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

10 March 1921

My dear Dr. Dewing:

Dean Haskins is arranging the Special Examination of Mr. Jacob Viner for the Ph.D. in Economics for March 18 (Friday) at 4 P.M. Mr. Viner’s field is International Trade.

Would you be able to serve on his Examining Committee? The other members consist of Professors Taussig, (chairman), Young, and Persons.

Since the time before the examination is very short, are to the fact that Mr. Viner’s thesis was in the hands of the Committee until very recently, and had not been approved, we should be glad If you would either return the enclosed card with your signature, or let us know by telephone whether you can serve.

I shall notify you later of the place.

Yours very truly,
[unsigned copy]
Secretary of the Division.

Professor A. S. Dewing.

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

I can serve on the Committee for the Special Examination of Mr. Viner on Friday, March 18, at 4 P. M.

[Signed] Arthur S. Dewing

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

11 March 1921

My dear Professor Taussig:

I am sending formal notice to the members of Mr. Viner’s examination committee that the examination will be held on Friday, 18 March, as you suggested. Professor Dewing will serve as the fourth member of the committee, the other three being the members of the thesis committee — yourself, Professor Young, and Professor Persons. I am assuming that the hour will be 4 P.M. as usual.

Very truly yours,
[unsigned]
Secretary of the Division.

Professor F. W. Taussig.

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

11 March 1921

My dear Professor Persons:

I am  writing you in order to confirm the arrangements for Mr. Viner’s Special Examination, about which I believe Professor Taussig has already spoken to you. Dean Haskins has set the date as Friday, March 18, and the time will be 4 P. M. Mr. Viner’s special field is International Trade. The Committee consists of Professors Taussig (chairman), Young, Persons, and yourself.

Yours very truly,
[unsigned copy]
Secretary of the Division.

Professor W. M, Persons.

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

11 March 1921

My dear Professor Young:

I am writing you in order to confirm the arrangements for Mr, Viner’s Special Examination, of which I believe Professor Taussig has already told you. Dean Haskins has set the date as March 18 (Friday), and the time will be 4 P. M. His special field is International Trade.

The Committee consists of Professors Taussig (chairman), Young, Persons, and Dewing.

Yours very truly,
[unsigned copy]
Secretary of the Division.

Professor A. A. Young.

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

15 March 1921

Dear Taussig:

I am enclosing Jacob Viner’s papers for your use at his examination on Friday, 18 March. Viner seems to be very optimistic about his success in his examination, as I notice in the last circular of the University of Chicago he was already listed as a Ph.D. I trust that his attention may be called to the impropriety of his using the degree not only until he has passed the examination but until it is actually conferred.

Sincerely yours,
[unsigned copy]

Professor F. W. Taussig

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

HARVARD UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS

F. W. Taussig
T. N. Carver
W. Z. Ripley
C. J. Bullock
A. A. Young
W. M. Persons
E. E. Day
J. S. Davis
H. H. Burbank
A. S. Dewing
E. E. Lincoln
A. E. Monroe
A. H. Cole

Cambridge, Massachusetts
March 22, 1921.

Dear Haskins:

I find there is no chance of Viner’s fixing up the thesis before April 1. His commitments for the coming week are many, and moreover his time will be absorbed by teaching upon his return. He will not present himself as a candidate again this year. What may be the status of the examination which he took, and on which the report would be favorable, remains to be seen. I take it this question need not be considered until it is presented.

Very sincerely yours,
[signed] F. W. Taussig

Dean C. H. Haskins

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

HARVARD UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS

F. W. Taussig
T. N. Carver
W. Z. Ripley
C. J. Bullock
A. A. Young
W. M. Persons
E. E. Day
H. H. Burbank
A. S. Dewing
J. H. Williams
A. E. Monroe
A. H. Cole
R. S. Tucker
R. S. Meriam

Cambridge, Massachusetts
October 29, 1921.

Dear Haskins:

Viner’s thesis has been approved, and the only question that remains is about the acceptance of his Special Examination last June. Young will present the matter for the consideration of the Administrative Board at its next meeting. Will you kindly see that it is on the docket for the meeting?

Sincerely yours,
[signed] F. W. Taussig

Dean C. H. Haskins

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

Source: Harvard University Archives. Division of History, Government & Economics. Ph.D. Examinations 1921-22 to 1922-23. Box 4. Folder “Jacob Viner”.

Image Source: University of Chicago Photographic Archive, apf1-08489, Hanna Holborn Gray Special Collections Research Center, University of Chicago Library

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Exam Questions Harvard Principles

Harvard. Enrollment and exams for Outlines of Economics. Taussig et al., 1904-1905

From the final exams for the two semester introductory economics course run by Frank Taussig and A. Piatt Andrew in 1904-05 we see (among other things) that John Stuart Mill provided the backbone of theory and that there was room for a compare and contrast question regarding a liberal market economy vs a socialist economy.

________________________

Course Enrollment

Economics 1. Professor [Frank W.] Taussig, Asst. Professor [Abram Piatt] Andrew, and Messrs. [Vanderveer] Custis, [James Alfred] Field, [Silas Wilder] Howland, [Selden Osgood] Martin, and [Chester Whitney] Wright. — Outlines of Economics.

Total 438: 10 Seniors, 84 Juniors, 232 Sophomores, 54 Freshmen, 58 Others.

Source: Harvard University. Report of the President of Harvard College, 1904-1905, p. 74.

________________________

ECONOMICS 1
Mid-year Examination, 1904-05

One question in each group may be omitted.
Arrange your answers strictly in the order of the questions
Give your reasons in all cases.

I

  1. Which among the following would you consider (1) “productive laborers,” (2) otherwise useful to society: actors, manufacturers of gambling implements, stock-brokers, landlords receiving and spending the rents of land.
  2. It has been laid down that,—
    Capital is distinguished from non-capital by its nature, — it consists of machinery, materials, and other apparatus for production;
    Capital is distinguished from non-capital by the intention of the owner in dealing with his wealth;
    Capital, though the result of saving, is yet continually consumed.
    Can you reconcile these propositions? If not, which do you consider sound?
  3. “The laws and conditions of the production of wealth partake of the character of physical truths.” Is this true of the law stating the conditions under which the accumulation of capital takes place? of that stating the conditions under which production upon land takes place?
  4. Define briefly: value in use, value in exchange, utility, marginal utility, margin of cultivation, consumer’s rent.
  5. Can a person having a monopoly of a given commodity control its price at will? If so, how? If not, why not?
  6. “An individual speculator cannot gain by a rise in price of his own creating . . . when there is neither at the time nor afterwards any cause for a rise of prices except his own proceedings.”
    On what reasoning does this statement of Mill’s rest? Does the practice of dealings for future delivery (“futures”) affect the reasoning.

II

  1. What is the difference between a wages-fund and a wages-flow? Which seems to you the better mode of describing the influences that act on the general rate of wages?
  2. “The expectations of profit, therefore, in different employments, cannot long continue very different: they tend to a common average.”
    “It is true that, to persons with the same amount of original means, there is more chance of making a large fortune in some employments than in others.”
    “Gross profit varies greatly from individual to individual, and can scarcely be in any two cases the same.”
    Can these statements of Mill’s be reconciled?
  3. Is the return from capital sunk in the soil to be regarded as rent or interest? Is the return from urban real estate to be regarded as rent or interest? Is the return on corporate securities (stocks and bonds) to be regarded as rent or interest?
  4. How will a rise in the rate of interest affect the selling value of land? that of securities yielding a fixed income?
  5. “But it is impossible for anyone to study political economy, even as at present taught, or to think at all upon the production and distribution of wealth, without seeing that property in land differs essentially from property in things of human production, and that it has no warrant in abstract justice.” Henry George.
    Do you think this statement true in view of what you have learned in this course? Consider both your reading and the lectures.
  6. What would become of interest, rent, business profits, in a socialist state? what if there were an all-embracing régime of coöperative production?

Source: Harvard University Archives. Harvard University. Mid-year Examinations, 1852-1943. Box 7, Bound Volume: Examination Papers, Mid-Years 1904-05.

________________________

ECONOMICS 1
Year-end Examination, 1904-05

Omit one question from each group.

I

  1. What is meant by the equilibrium of demand and supply? How is it secured?
  2. Suppose there were a general rise in wages: could capitalists, by charging higher prices for their goods, prevent profits from falling?
    Suppose a rise of wages in a particular trade: could the capitalists in that trade, by charging higher prices, keep their profits from falling?
  3. Under what head — wages, rent, interest, profits — would you class the remuneration of (1) an apothecary; (2) a city merchant who owns the building in which he carries on his business; (3) an author who receives copyright payments on books which he has written; (4) a stockholder in a company which owns a lucrative patent?
  4. Is land capital? Are buildings capital? Are the skill and capacity of a workman — such as a trained engineer or a great inventor — to be regarded as capital?

II

  1. What would be the effect on the price of beef if a high protective tariff were levied on the import of hides?
  2. Which of the economic advantages and disadvantages of combination, in the broad sense, result from (a) pooling, (b) merger in a single corporation, (c) monopoly?
  3. President Roosevelt in a recent message said that our tariff “duties must never be reduced below the point that will cover the difference between the labor cost here and abroad.” Discuss this statement.
  4. Suppose that a country which manufactures only enough to supply half the home market, and which has a large export trade in wheat, imposes a uniform import duty of 50% on all commodities. What will be the effect on the nominal and the real wages of agricultural laborers, absolutely, and as compared with wages in manufacturing industries?

III

  1. How do you explain the fact that there is less than 1/10 as much silver in a dime as in a silver dollar? Is there any reason why this should be so?
  2. Explain briefly:—

(a) Deposit.
(b) Suffolk Bank system.
(c) Clearing House certificate.
(d) Post-note.
(e) Discount.
(f) Reserve city.
(g) Central reserve city.
(h) Asset currency.

  1. Secretary Shaw has said “Without claiming that the national banking act is perfect or that our currency system is free from objection I think that the world joins us in the verdict that it is the best system known to man.”
    Discuss this statement, comparing the American system as regards security and elasticity with those of England and Germany.
  2. If a national bank examiner should discover the following to be the account of a bank in Boston to what would he object:
Capital 200,000 Loans 733,000
Surplus 24,000 U.S. Bonds 75,000
Undivided profits 43,000 Other assets 42,000
Notes 78,000 Deposits in U.S. Treas. 3,500
Deposits 745,000 Deposits in other banks 150,000
Clearing House certificate 14,000
Coin & legal tender notes 72,500
1,090,000 1,090,000

Would his objections differ at all if the bank were located in Cambridge?

Source: Harvard University Archives. Harvard University, Examination Papers 1873-1915. Box 7, Bound volume: Examination Papers, 1904-05;  Papers Set for Final Examinations in History, Government, Economics,…,Music in Harvard College (June, 1905), pp. 21-23.

Image Sources:  Frank W. Taussig (Original black and white image from of Frank William Taussig from a cabinet card photograph, 1895, at the Harvard University Archives HUP); Abram Piatt Andrews (Picture from ca. 1909 used in a magazine article about Andrew’s appointment to the directorship of the U. S. Mint. Hoover Institution Archives. A. Piatt Andrew Papers, Box 51). Images colorized by Economics in the Rear-view Mirror.

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Columbia Economists Germany Popular Economics Princeton Teaching

New York City Schools. Essay on Economics and the High School Teacher of Economics. Tildsley, 1919

Every so often I make an effort to track down students whose names have been recorded in course lists. I do this in part to hone my genealogical skills but primarily to obtain a broader sense of the population obtaining advanced training in economics beyond the exclusive society of those who ultimately clear all the hurdles in order to be awarded the Ph.D. degree. This post began with a simple list of the participants in Professor Edwin R.A. Seligman’s seminar in political economy and finance at Columbia University in 1901-02 published in the annual presidential report for that year (p. 154).

 John L. Tildsley’s seminar topic was “Economic Aspects of Colonial Expansion.” I began to dig into finding out more about this Tildsley fellow, who was completely unknown to me other than for the distinction of having attended a graduate course in economics at Columbia but never having received an economics Ph.D. from the university.

It turns out that this B.A. and M.A. graduate from Princeton had indeed already been awarded a doctorate in economics from the Friedrichs Universität Halle-Wittenberg (Germany), renamed the Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg in 1933, before he took any coursework at Columbia. A link to his German language doctoral dissertation on the Chartist movement is provided below.

I also found out that John Lee Tildsley went on to a distinguished if controversial career [e.g., he had no qualms about firing teachers for expressing radical opinions in the classroom] in the top tier of educational administration for the public high-schools in New York City. No less a critical writer than Upton Sinclair aimed his words at Tildsley.

For the purposes of Economics in the Rear-View Mirror John L. Tildsley is of particular interest as someone who had done much to introduce economics into the curriculum of New York City public schools.

Following data on his life culled from Who’s Who in America and New York Times articles on the occasions of his retirement and death, I have included his March 1919 essay dedicated to economics and the economics teacher in New York City high schools. 

_________________________

Life and Career
of John Lee Tildsley

from Who’s Who in America, 1934

John Lee Tildsley, educator

Born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Mar. 13, 1867;
Son of John and Elizabeth (Withington) Tidsley;
Married Bertha Alice Watters, of New York City, June 24, 1896;
Children—Jane, John Lee, Margaret, Kathleen (deceased).

B.A., Princeton, 1893 [Classmate of A. Piatt Andrew], M.A. 1894;
Boudinot fellow in history, Princeton, 1893-94;
Teacher Greek and history, Lawrenceville (New Jersey) School, 1894-96;
Studied Universities of Halle and Berlin, 1896-98, Ph.D., Halle, 1898;
Teacher of history, Morris High School, New York City, 1898-1902;
Studied economics, Columbia, 1902;
Head of dept. of economics, High School of Commerce, 1902-08;
Principal of DeWitt Clinton High School, 1908-14;
Principal of High School of Commerce, 1914-16;
Associate Superintendent, Oct. 1916-July 1920;
District Superintendent, July 1920, City of New York.

Member: Headmasters’ Assn., Phi Beta Kappa.
Democrat.
Episcopalian.

Formulated and introduced into public schools of New York City, courses in economics and civics for secondary grades. Speaker and writer on teaching and problems of school administration.

Club: Nipnichsen.
Home: [2741 Edgehill Ave.] Spuyten Duyvil, [Bronx] New York.

Source: Who’s Who in America 1934, p. 2356.

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

Tildsley’s 1898 doctoral dissertation on the Chartist movement (in German)

Tildsley, John L. Die Entstehung und die ökonomischen Grundsätze der Chartistenbewegung, Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung der philosophischen Doktorwürde der hohen philosophischen Fakultät der vereinigten Friedrichs-Universität Halle-Wittenberg. Halle a.S. 1898.

*  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *

New York Times, September 2, 1937

Dr. John L. Tildsley, Associate Superintendent of Schools, retired on Sept. 1, 1937.

One of Dr. Tildsley’s pet ideas has been the formation of special schools for bright pupils. As a result of his efforts two such schools are to be established in this city, the first to be opened next February in Brooklyn.
‘This new school will develop independent habits of work on the part of the superior student,’ he has explained. ‘Special emphasis will be placed upon the development of social-mindedness.’

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New York Times, November 22, 1948

Dr. John L. Tildsley died November 21, 1948 in St. Luke’s Hospital, New York, N.Y.

In 1920, having fallen out of the graces of Mayor John F. Hylan because of a political speech, he was denied a second term as associate superintendent.
At the urging of many admirers, he was assigned to the position of assistant superintendent which he held until the Fusion Board of Education restored him to his former rank in the spring of 1937.
When Dr. Tildsley was demoted he refused to be silenced, constantly championing controversial causes. He attacked the ‘frontier thinkers’ of Teachers College, and charged that under the existing high school set up much waste resulted to the city and to the pupil.
He urged the development of ‘nonconformist’ pupils, and angered patriotic organizations by suggesting that patriotic songs and holidays have little value in the schools.
Born in Pittsburgh of British parents, Dr. Tildsley received his early education in schools in Lockport, N.Y., and at the Mount Hermon School. Instead of becoming a minister, as he originally had planned, he decided to study at Princeton University, where Woodrow Wilson was one of his instructors for three years.

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Tildsley became a target of Upton Sinclair’s critical pen for his campaign to regulate teachers’ opinions expressed in school

Upton Sinclair, The Goslings: A Study of the American Schools (1924). See Chapters XV (Honest Graft) and XVI (A Letter to Woodrow Wilson), XVII (An Arrangement of Little Bits).

Cf. Teachers’ Defense Fund. The Trial of the Three Suspended Teachers of the De Witt Clinton High School (1917).

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HISS TILDSLEY FOR PRAISE OF GERMANS
School Superintendent Aroused Criticism by Talk in Ascension Parish House.
LIKES TEUTON DISCIPLINE
When He Said Their Military Success Was a Credit to Them the Trouble Began.

The New York Times, December 10, 1917.

Dr. John L. Tildsley, Associate Superintendent of Schools in charge of high schools, whose investigation of the opinions of the teachers at the De Witt Clinton High School resulted in the suspension and trial of three of them and in the transfer of six others, was hissed last night in the parish house of the Church of the Ascension, Fifth Avenue and Eleventh Street, when he said that the success of the Germans in military affairs was a credit to them rather than a discredit, and that their “good qualities” ought not to be ignored even if “they happen to be our enemies.”

Dr. Tildsley was also denounced as a “Prussian by instinct and education,” because of his laudation of family life in Germany and because he asserted that it was desirable to have in this country more obedience instinctively to authority as exemplified by the obedience of the German child to its father. The denouncer was Adolph Benet, a lawyer, who said that Dr. Tildsley’s sojourn in Germany, where he studied at the University of Halle, caused him to misunderstand Germany.

“There is one thing that is bad in Germany,” declared Mr Benet. “That thing is unqualified and instinctive respect for authority. And Dr. Tildsley, after living in Germany and observing the country, would come here and try to introduce here the worst part of the whole German system. I say Dr. Tildsley is a Prussian by instinct and a Prussian by education. Why did he not say these things two months ago when many were denouncing a Judge who is now Mayor-elect?”

The stormy part of the evening took place in the parish house, where the audience repaired to ask questions after Dr. Tildsley delivered an address in the church on “Regulation of Opinion in the Schools.” The hissing of the speaker occurred during his explanation of his ideas on obedience. He explained the system of instinctive obedience to authority which marks all Germans, and then said: “German family life is magnificent, and we ought to emulate it.” Here the hissing began. A minute later it began again and grew in volume for about minute, when it stopped.

In reply to another question relating to his charges against teachers, Dr. Tildslev. said that teachers have too much protection in the schools, and that not a single high school teacher in nineteen years has been brought up on charges. In this connection he declared that when a teacher is brought up on charges the Board of Education is handicapped in the handling of the case because must accept such a lawyer as it gets from the Corporation Counsel while the teacher may get the cleverest lawyer that money can buy. This was taken by the high school teacher in the audience to mean that Dr. Tildsley was dissatisfied with handling of the trial against the three teachers by the Corporation Counsel.

In his formal address Dr. Tildsley said that the teachers who were tried and those who were transferred were not accused of disloyalty. Later. in the parish house. he said he believed they were all internationalists and doubted whether a teacher who had the spirit of internationalism had the spirit necessary to teach high school students.

He said the teachers he investigated held that unrestricted expression of opinion was the best means of developing good citizenship. With this point of view he said, he and others differed. He quoted one teacher as being a believer in Bertrand Russell and he read from one of Russell’s works a passage which said in substance that it did not matter what the teacher said but what he felt and that it was what he felt that reached the consciousness of the pupils. It was Dr. Tildsley’s belief that the opinions which the teachers hold are accepted by the pupils, even if they if they were unexpressed. Dr. Tildsley read the letter of Hyman Herman, the sixteen-year-old pupil whose composition was the basis for a charge against Samuel Schmalhauser one of the suspended teachers. In this letter President Wilson was denounced as a “murderer.” Dr. Tildsley said the teacher was in in no way responsible for the letter.

While the speaker said that the teachers loyal he investigated were not disloyal and declared their convictions were honest, he also said that though the nation had gone to war they were unable to subscribe to the decision of the majority. He divided the radical group among the teachers into three classes, those who believe in absolute and unrestrained expression by the students, those who are opposed to the war and do not believe in it, and a third class, born in Germany, , who cannot be blamed for feeling as they do about Germany. The last mentioned he declared, must not allow any of their feelings to escape into their teaching. He gave a clean bill oi health as to loyalty to all the teachers in the De Witt Clinton High School.

“A teacher is not an ordinary citizen who has the right to express his opinions freely,” continued Dr. Tildsley. “Every teacher always teaches himself, and if he has not the right ideas toward the Government he has no right to accept payment from the taxpayers. We make no claim that any of these teachers were consciously disloyal, but if because of this belief in unrestricted utterance they spread disloyalty they are not persons to be intrusted with the teaching of citizenship to students.”

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From the New York Times, November 5, 1918:

…the dismissal of Thomas Mufson, A. Henry Schneer, and Samuel D. Schmalhausen in the De Witt Clinton High School was upheld by Acting New York Commissioner of Education E. Thomas Finegan.

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ECONOMICS AND THE TEACHER OF ECONOMICS IN THE NEW YORK CITY HIGH SCHOOLS

John L. Tildsley,
Associate Superintendent in Charge of High Schools.
[March 1919]

Every student graduated in June, 1920 and thereafter from the general course of the high schools of New York City, must have had a course in economics of not less than five periods a week for one-half year. This requirement, recently adopted by the Board of Superintendents, is one of the changes which may be charged directly to the clearer vision of our educational needs which the war has brought us. Many of us have long believed that economics is an essential element in the curriculum of the public high school, whose fundamental aim is to train the young to play their part in an environment whose ruling forces are preeminently industrial and commercial. But it has required the revelation of the dangers inherent in our untrained citizenship to cause us to force a place for the upwelcome intruder among the college preparatory subjects whose vested rights are based on immemorial possession of the field of secondary education.

One of the chief aims of the Board of Superintendents in establishing this new requirement is, without doubt, to give high school students a specialized training which shall bring to them some understanding of the forces economic and political which so largely determine their happiness and general well being, to the end that these students shall discharge more intelligently their duties as citizens in a democracy, and shall develop their productive capacity to the increase of their own well being and to the resulting advancement of the common good. A further reason for introducing economics is the belief that the boys and girls who have had this training will be better able to analyze the various remedies proposed for the evils of our social organization and to detect the iallacies which are so often put forth as measures of reform. These students should find in such training an antidote to the movements which have as their aim the over throw of institutions which the experience of our race has evolved through the centuries.

Because of this realization that economics deals not only with the conduct of business enterprises but also with political institutions and with movements for social amelioration, it is apt to enroll among its teachers the enthusiastic social reformer whose sympathies are all-embracing, who readily becomes a propagandist for his or her pet project of reform, and who finds it impossible to resist the temptation to enroll converts among the trusting students of his or her classes. It is because of this conception of the nature of economics teaching in our educational program that the new subject has been some what despised by the teachers of the sterner disciplinary subjects.

With full sympathy with the vocational aim of economics, I would offer as its chief claim for a place in our high school curriculum, that it is essentially a disciplinary subject, that it can be taught and should be taught so as to yield a training of the highest order, somewhat different in its processes, but no less searching in its demands upon the students, than mathematics or physical science.

It is a subject, therefore, to be taught by the man with the keenly analytical mind, by the man who can detect the untruth and train pupils to detect the untruth in the major premise, by the man who from tested premises can proceed to a valid conclusion. Economics is essentially applied logic rather than a confused program of social reform, as too many of its advocates have led the layman to believe.

Economics in the past has been for the most part a college and university subject. Consequently the well-trained student of economics has found his work in the college, in government service, on newspaper or magazine, and, in ever-increasing numbers, in bank ing and finance. Practically none has sought to find a career for himself in secondary work.

With full knowledge of this fact, we have added economics to the high school curriculum in the hope that ultimately the demand will create a supply of teachers thoroughly trained in economic theory before they begin their teaching. Meanwhile, we confidently expect that men thoroughly trained in other subjects which require a high degree of analysis and synthesis, will come to the rescue as they see the need. Applying the knowledge of scientific method which they possess to the new subject matter, these teachers may speedily acquire that mastery of principles which is necessary for the effective teaching of economics.

In my own experience, as I sought for economics teachers in the High School of Commerce, I found them among the teachers of mathematics and of biology. Certain of these teachers, who had an interest in business and public affairs and who were masters of scientific methods, became in the course of a single term expert teachers of economics. They even preferred the new subject to the old, because of the greater interest manifested by the students in this subject which never fails to enlist the enthusiastic interest of students when properly taught.

I trust, therefore, that some of our teachers who enjoy close, accurate thinking will take up some economic text, such as Taussig, Seligman, Seager, Carver, or Marshall, and, having read this, will follow it up with other texts on the specific fields of economics to which they find themselves attracted. Very soon, I believe, such teachers, in view of the urgent need for teachers of economics, will realize the very great service they can render our schools by utilizing their knowledge of boys and girls, their mastery of method, their awakened interest in economics and social phenomena, in training these boys and girls in this most vital subject.

As a text book for classroom use, I recommend a systematic book, such as Bullock’s Introduction to [the Study of] Economics, which lays the emphasis on principles rather than on descriptions of industrial processes or on the operation of social agencies. There are several books which are more interestingly written, but in the hands of most teachers they will lead to a descriptive treatment of industry and social institutions, to discussions for which the students are not qualified because of their ignorance of and want of drill in economic principles.

Our students need to be trained in economic theory before they attempt to discuss measures of social reform. They need to grasp the meaning of utility, value, price, before they take up the study of industrial processes. It is because of hazy conception of these primary elements that we fall so readily into error. The key to economic thinking lies in a clear understanding of the terms margin and marginal. The boy who has digested the concept “marginal utility” is already on the way to becoming a student of economics. Until he has arrived at an understanding of the nature of value, he is hardly ready to discuss socialism, wage theories, the single tax or other like themes.

The temptation for the untrained or inexperienced teacher is to begin with the study of actual business, partly as a means of interesting the student by causing him to feel that he is dealing with practical life, partly because he conceives business as a laboratory and desires as a scientist to employ the inductive method. The study of the factory or store takes the place of the study of the crayfish. The analogy does not hold. Induction in economics is the method of discovery, it is not the method of teaching, especially of secondary teaching. The method is deductive. The teacher must assume that certain great principles have been shown to be valid. He should drill on these principles and their application till the pupil has mastered them.

Let no one believe that this means a dull grind. Even such a subject as marginal utility can be made interesting to every student. It is altogether a matter of method. The concept must be presented from a dozen different angles. There must be no lecturing, no mere hearing of recitations. The pupil must not be assigned a few pages or paragraphs in the book and then left to work out his salvation. The real teaching must be done in the recitation period, with the teacher at the blackboard with a piece of chalk in his hand, ready to answer all questions and with a dozen illustrations at his command with which to drive home the principle, illustrations with which the pupils are thoroughly familiar because taken from the daily occurrences about them. For example, to explain the principle that the value of any commodity is determined by its marginal utility and that its marginal utility is the lowest use to which any commodity must be put in order to exhaust its supply, take the teacher’s desk as the illustration. Elicit from the pupils the different uses to which that desk may be put, and write the list as it is given on the blackboard. Some boy will remark that the desk could be used for firewood and will ask why the value of the desk is not determined by its utility as firewood; then comes the query, will not the supply of desks be exhausted before it is necessary to use them as firewood? As a result of this give and take process, the boys, in one recitation, may grasp this principle which is the very keystone of our modern economics.

John Bates Clark, our foremost theorist, once said to me that there is no principle in economics so difficult that it cannot be understood by a ten year old child if it is properly taught. But how often it is not properly taught! Teaching economics is like kneading bread. The teacher must turn over these principles again and again until they are kneaded into the boy so thoroughly that they have become a part of his mind stuff. When he has once had kneaded into him the concepts of the margin, marginal utility, the marginal producer, the marginal land, the marginal unit of capital, the marginal laborer, he can move fearlessly forward to the conquest of the most involved propositions of actual business. In business, in government, in all the multitudinous activities of life, we come to grief because our concepts are not clearly defined. Because of deficient analysis, we accept wrong premises and because of muddy reasoning, we allow factors to enter into the conclusion which were not in the premises. If economics be taught with the same degree of analysis of conditions, with the same accuracy in checking the reasoning as in geometry, the teacher will find himself surprised by the ability of the students to solve a most difficult problem in the incidence of taxation or one in the operations of foreign exchange. As a means of testing whether the student has gained a clear concept, problem questions should be assigned at the close of every discussion, to be answered at home in writing by the pupil, and written tests should be given at least once a week. Purely oral work makes possible much confusion of thought on the part of the pupil without the knowledge of the teacher. The slovenly thinking which may thus become a habit will produce a wrongly-trained citizen more dangerous than one who has had no training in economics at all. The problems which this training fits the student to solve are precisely the kind of problems that every businessman is called upon to face every day of his life. For example, the man who keeps the country store at Marlborough or Milton on the Hudson will soon need to decide how large a stock of goods he will order for the fall trade. This may seem to be a simple problem and yet he needs all his experience to enable him to analyze the problem of demand for his goods. This involves the effect of the mild weather on the vines and peach trees, the possibility of his customers again securing boys and girls from New York to pick the crops, the matter of freight rates on fruit, the buying capacity of the people of New York which, in turn, involves a knowledge of conditions in many industries. After he has considered all of these elements, he has come to a conclusion as to demand for his goods, but he has not yet touched the question whether the cost of his goods is to be higher or lower before September next. Do we wonder that failures are so common when we realize that few of our people, even our college graduates, are trained in accurate observation, keen analysis, rigid reasoning? The development of these powers in his pupils should be the fundamental aim of every teacher of economics this coming year. If this aim should be realized for every high school pupil in this country, we should not need to fear for the future of our city, our state, our nation. Inefficient government is due chiefly to the failure of our people to realize the connection between incompetent or dishonest officials and the well-being of the individual. Dangerous movements like the I. W. W. and Bolshevism are due to slovenly thinking, poor analysis of conditions by both the members of these organizations and those responsible for the conditions which breed these dangerous movements. Marxian socialism is based on premises which will not bear analysis, namely, the Marxian theory of value, which is not evolved from experience, the resulting expropriation theory, which depends upon this false theory of value, and the inevitable class struggle and the ultimate triumph of the proletariat, an unwarranted conclusion from invalid premises.

I have indicated that the primary aim of the Board of Superintendents in making economics a required subject was vocational in character. Through the medium of this subject it seeks to train good citizens. I trust I have made clear that this vocational aim can be best realized by making all aims subsidiary to the disciplinary aim; that we should, therefore, make the recitation periods in this subject exercises in exact analysis and rigid reasoning. If our schools can produce a generation of students with trained intelligence, students who can see straight, and think straight on economic data, we need not fear the attacks on our cherished institutions of the newcomers from lands where they have not been permitted to be trained and where the nursing of grievances has so stimulated the emotional nature as to render the dispassionate analysis of industrial movements and civil activities almost an impossibility.

Effective teaching in economics brings to the teacher an immediate reward, for the efficient teacher of economics must keep in touch not only with the changes in economic theory but with the movements in industry and finance, with problems of labor, problems of administration, local and national, with the vast field of legislation, and these not only in America, but in Asia, Australia, South America and Europe as well. Every newspaper, every periodical yields him material for his classroom. Almost every man he meets may be made to contribute to his work. The boundaries of his subject are ever widening. There is, moreover, no need of the stultifying repetition of subject matter, for there is no end to the material for the elucidation of economic principles. Nor is the teacher of economics in the high school compelled to create in his pupils an interest in the subject. for every New York boy is an economist in embryo. Questions of cost, price, wages, profits, labor, capital, are already the subjects of daily discussion.

The complaint so often heard that the teacher is academic, that he is removed from the world of practical affairs, and has little touch with the man in the street, cannot be made of the teachers of economics, who is vitally interested in his teaching. The more he studies his subject, the more he becomes a citizen of the world with an ever-deepening interest in all kinds of men and in all that pertains to man, the broader becomes his sympathies, the wider his vision.

The New York high schools offer great opportunities for men and women who, whether trained students of economics or not, are students of life. Here they may serve the state as effectively as the soldier in the field. Here they may train the young for lasting usefulness to themselves and to the city, while at the same time they are broadening their interests, expanding their vision and growing in intellectual vigor under, the compulsion of keeping pace with the demands of a subject which reflects as a mirror the changing needs and desires of men. The teaching of economics in high schools demands our strongest teachers. There is no place for the man who has finished his growth, who cannot change to meet changed conditions; nor is there place for the man who loves change just because it is change. The teacher of economics in the New York City high schools should be a co-worker with all those who seek to preserve and to develop those institutions, economic and civic, which have stood the test and gained the approval of the wise among us through the years. He should be a man who is fundamentally an optimist, constructive in his outlook on life, not destructive. If his motto be, “All’s wrong with the world,” there should be no place for him as a teacher of economics in a high school in New York City or in any other American city.

Economics is closely allied with the study of civics or government. In every school where there is not a full program in economics, the teacher of economics should also teach the civics. With the great increase in our civics work, there should be established in each school a department of economics and civics. For each of these subjects a license is being issued and separate examinations are being held. For the new department first assistants may be appointed and will be appointed.

May we not, therefore, confidently expect that some of our strongest teachers shall prepare themselves for this most interesting and vital work which will be given in every high school beginning September next?

Source: Bulletin of the High Points in the Work of the High Schools of New York City, Vol. I, No 3 (March 1919), pp. 3-7.

Image Source: Photo of Dr. John L. Tildsley in “Modern Girls Not All Wild; Here is Proof” [Construction of a new building to house Girls’ Commercial High on Classon Avenue, near Union Street] Sunday News,Brooklyn Section, p. B-15.